Engineered catfish and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

Descried in certain example embodiments herein are engineered fish, particularly engineered catfish, that are engineered to contain modified myostatin, melanocortin-4 receptor, and/or one or more n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis pathway genes and/or gene products.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/176,067, filed on Apr. 16, 2021, entitled “Mealnocortin-receptor Gene Edited Channel Catfish, Ictalurus Punctatus” and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/176,105, filed on Apr. 16, 2021, entitled “Genetic Technologies for Growth Enhancement in Catfish”, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 2015-6701523488 awarded by United States Department of Agriculture—National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The government has certain rights in the invention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

This application contains a sequence listing filed in electronic form as an ASCII.txt file entitled AU-0210US_ST25.txt, created on Apr. 18, 2022 and having a size of 33,860 bytes (37 KB on disk). The content of the sequence listing is incorporated herein in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The subject matter disclosed herein is generally directed to engineered fish, and more specifically engineered catfish.

BACKGROUND

Global seafood consumption has reached 155 billion kg and is projected to reach 201 billion kg by 2030. This increase must come from aquaculture as capture fisheries has been level or declining for the past 50 years. As such there exists a need for improved fish, genetics, husbandry, and other aquaculture compositions, techniques, and methods.

Citation or identification of any document in this application is not an admission that such a document is available as prior art to the present invention.

SUMMARY

Described in certain example embodiments herein are engineered fish comprising a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises a modified myostatin gene or gene product, wherein the modified myostatin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to the suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of n-3 fatty acids, sterility, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2-1000 fold.

In certain example embodiments, the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, wherein the myostatin gene or gene product expression, activity, or both, are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, or both.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein (a) a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; (b) a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; or (c) both (a) and (b).

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased disease resistance, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased disease resistance, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased body weight, growth rate, increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof. In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is I. punctatus, I. furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof.

In certain example embodiments, the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product is produced using a programmable nuclease system.

In certain example embodiments, the programmable nuclease system is a CRISPR-Cas system, a TALEN system, a Zinc Finger Nuclease system, or an IscB system.

Described in certain example embodiments herein are feed and/or food product comprising an engineered fish or portion thereof, wherein the engineered fish comprises a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to an unmodified control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises a modified myostatin gene.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein (a) a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; (b) a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; or (c) both (a) and (b).

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturu, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof. In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is I. punctatus, I. furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof.

These and other aspects, objects, features, and advantages of the example embodiments will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of example embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

An understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention may be utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

FIGS. 1A-1H—Evaluation of growth in myostatin (MSTN)-mutated one-month-old channel catfish fry. Body weight (FIG. 1A) and body length (FIG. 1B) of mutant (blue) and wild type (red) (n=330). (FIGS. 1C and 1D) Representative images of the ventral cross-sectional area of the epaxial muscle of wild-type (WT) (FIG. 1C) and mutant (individuals with frame-shift mutation from MSTN-Mix group) (FIG. 1D), shown by Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining. Scale bar in (FIGS. 1C and 1D): 25 μm. Numbers of muscle fibers (FIG. 1E), the average area of the muscle fibers (FIG. 1F) and the total area of fibers (FIG. 1G) of mutant (blue) and wild-type (red), quantified H&E staining images (see FIGS. 1C and 1D) with ImageJ. Approximately 32 stained images for each treatment were quantified. Distribution percentage of the fibers (FIG. 1H) was calculated as the total area of fibers per cross-sectional area multiplied by 100. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05, and all data were presented as the mean±standard error (SEM)

FIG. 2—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control (blue) and P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout (red) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, at 18-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). MSTN mutants (N=8) were 44% and 182.41 g larger than controls (N=29) (p=0.036, r²=0.1203).

FIG. 3—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control (blue) and P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout (red) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2018, at 18-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 200 L communal flow through tank with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outliers (circles). MSTN mutants (N=8) were 93.5% and 110.18 g larger than controls (N=31) (p=3.34e-6, r²=0.447).

FIG. 4—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control (NIC and IC) and P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout (red) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2019, at 18-months post hatch. Three different cut sites in exon 1 were targeted with sgRNAs (MSTN-1, MSTN-2, MSTN-3) as well as a mix of all three sgRNA's (MSTN-Mix) a control injected with just phenol red dye (IC) and a non-injected control (NIC). Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 200 L communal flow through tank with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). Overall, at 18-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 1% and 6.66 g larger than controls (p=0.880, r²=0.0002, N=117).

FIG. 5—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of Control (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) and heterozygous F 1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout (red) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2019 at 12-months post hatch. Two families of MSTN F1 progeny (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and two families of wild-type (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were generated. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). Overall, at 12-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 218% and 77.56 g larger on average than controls (p<2.2e-16, r²=0.565, N=120).

FIG. 6—Identification of edited myostatin (MSTN) gene sequences in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, using the surveyor mutation detection assay. All samples were hybridized with an equal volume of non-injected control (Sample −) to detect both homozygotes/bi-allelic and heterozygotes. Wild-type sequences are indicated with a single 482 bp band, while mutations are signified by three bands. Sample 1 came from an embryo injected with MSTN-1 gRNA/Cas9. Samples 2-4 came from embryos injected with MSTN-2 gRNA/Cas9. Samples 5-13 came from F1 progeny of CNTRL female x MSTN male mutants (MSTN-A). Samples 14-18 came from F1 progeny of CNTRL female x MSTN male mutants (MSTN-B). Sample − came from wild-type control. Sample + came from previously identified MSTN P1 mutant. M indicates 1 kb marker.

FIG. 7—Relative expression of myostatin (MSTN) in various tissues among two F1 heterozygous MSTN mutants from two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B), one P1 homozygous/bi-allelic MSTN mutant (MSTN-2) and control channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Bars below the 0 line indicate reduced MSTN RNA expression from the control while bars above the 0 line indicate increased expression from the control. Error bars indicate standard deviation (N=3 measurements per sample. The fish were 9-months post hatch.

FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO. 1-21)—CRISPR/Cas9 induced mutations in exon 1 of myostatin (MSTN) gene coding sequence of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, using various gRNAs. The exons and introns are indicated by upper and lower case and the underlined bold uppercase is the start codon. The primers used in PCR are indicated in italics. The guide RNA target sites are indicated in bold followed by PAM (Protospacer adjacent motif, NGG) indicated 0with underline. Deletion mutations are represented by a dashed line with each dash corresponding to a nucleotide that has been deleted. Double slash indicates wild-type continuation of the sequence for simplicity. Single slash indicates that there is a large deletion. Each sequence starting with 5′ and ending with 3′ came from a single reaction representing a single allele. Brackets indicate deletion/insertion/substitution value. Wild-type sequence acquired from Genbank (Accession No. AF396747.1). Corresponding predicted amino acid sequence indicated by “AA”. Italic letters indicate substitutions. Predicted amino acid sequence acquired from Expasy and confirmed with NCBI ORFfinder.

FIG. 9—A total of 104 F1 heterozygous myostatin (MSTN) mutant channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and 24 control channel catfish in two families (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were challenged with Edwardsiellla ictaluri, causative agent for enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC). Fish were naïve and 7-months old, averaging 9.25±2.55 g at the start of the challenge. Fish were checked twice per day for 6 days until each family reached 100% mortality. The lines in the figure each represent the total mortality at each time point for each treatment.

FIG. 10—Area under the mortality progress curve (AUMPC) of F1 myostatin (MSTN) mutant channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and wild-type (CNTRL) channel catfish challenged with Edwardsiellla ictaluri, causative agent for enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC). A total of 104 F1 heterozygous MSTN mutant channel catfish in two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and 24 control channel catfish in two families (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were challenged. Fish were naïve and 7-months old, averaging 9.25±2.55 g at the start of the challenge. Fish were checked twice per day for 6 days until each family reached 100% mortality. No significant differences in the total AUMPC were found between different families (p=0.241). The p-values of comparison of AUMPC at each time point after first mortality are 0.633, 0.383, 0.282, 0.334, 0.223, 0.306, 0.375, 0.441 at 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, 132, 144-hours post challenge respectively.

FIG. 11—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) P1 knockout channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, at 27-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). Paired t-test was used to determine significant differences between treatments. MC4R mutants (N=29) were 14% and 126.50 g larger on average than controls (N=6) (p=0.330).

FIG. 12—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control (CNTRL), melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) F1 heterozygous knockout (pink) and MC4R F1 homozygous/bi-allelic knockout channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2018, at 21-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). ANOVA was used to determine significant differences between treatments. There were no significant differences in body weight between any treatments (p=0.109).

FIG. 13—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of control, melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) F1 heterozygous knockout (pink) and MC4R F1 homozygous/bi-allelic knockout channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2019 at 18-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). ANOVA was used to determine significant differences between treatments. At 18-months post hatch there was a significant difference in body weight between families (p=1.68e-4).

FIG. 14—Identification of edited melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene sequences in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, using the surveyor mutation detection assay. All samples were hybridized with an equal volume of non-injected control (Sample −) to detect both homozygotes/bi-allelic and heterozygotes. Wild-type sequences are indicated with a single 932 bp band, while mutations are signified by three bands. Samples 1 and 2 are MC4R x MC4R F 1 progeny. Sample 3 is CNTRL x MC4R-1 F1 progeny. Samples 4 and 5 are CNTRL x MC4R-2 F1 progeny. Samples 6 and 7 are CNTRL x MC4R-3 F 1 progeny. Samples 8 and 9 are CNTRL x MC4R-4 F 1 progeny. Sample + is a previously identified MC4R x MC4R F 1 progeny mutant. Sample − came from wild-type control. M indicates 1 kb marker.

FIG. 15 (SEQ ID NO. 22-30)—CRISPR/Cas9 induced mutations in exon 1 of melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene coding sequence of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in two F1 mutants. The exons and introns are indicated by upper and lower case and the underlined bold uppercase is the start codon. The primers used in PCR are indicated in italics. The guide RNA target sites are indicated with bolding followed by PAM (Protospacer adjacent motif, NGG) indicated by underlined text. Deletion mutations are represented by a dashed line with each dash corresponding to a nucleotide that has been deleted. Double slash indicates wild-type continuation of the sequence for simplicity. Single slash indicates that there is a large deletion. Each sequence starting with 5′ and ending with 3′ came from a single reaction representing a single allele. Brackets indicate deletion/insertion/substitution value. Wild-type sequence acquired from Genbank (Accession No. LBML01001141.1). Corresponding predicted amino acid sequence indicated by “AA”. Bolded and italicized letters indicate substitutions. Predicted amino acid sequence acquired from Expasy and confirmed with NCBI ORFfinder.

FIG. 16—Box and whisker plot of body weights (grams) of Non-Inject Control (NIC; blue), Inject-Control (IC; blue) and P1 ccβA-msEvol2 transgenic MC4R knock-out (Evol2; red) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2020, at 6-months post hatch. The ccβA-msEvol2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Mutants and controls were kept in separate 50 L aquaria at a maximum density of 1 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. The plot shows median of the data (dark line), the lower and upper quartiles (25% and 75%; top and bottom of the box respectively), the area 1.5 times the interquartile range (whiskers), and outlier (circle). At 6-months post hatch, ccβA-msEvol2 mutants were 41.81% and 12.01 g larger than controls (p=0.005).

FIG. 17—The ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Six (A1-A6) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were microinjected with MC4R-A sgRNA in conjunction with ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid (Table 15). P1 fish were generated in 2020. Approximately 50 nl of solution, composed of 1 μg/μl Cas9 protein (1 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA MC4R-A (0.5 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA2 (0.5 μl), 50 ng/μl donor plasmid (1 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN1 (0.5 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN2 (0.5 μl) and 60% phenol red (1 μl), was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. All six fish tested using Surveyor mutation detection kit were mutants. Six channel catfish (N1-N6) were not injected to use as controls. None of the controls showed a mutation in the MC4R gene. Sample C43-1 was previously identified as an MC4R mutant and was used as a positive control. The top row was hybridized with wild-type by mixing equal volumes of sample PCR product with N6 negative control in order to identify homozygotes. The bottom row was not hybridized with wild-type in order to identify heterozygotes.

FIG. 18—The ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Six (A1-A6) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were microinjected with MC4R-A sgRNA in conjunction with ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid (Table 15). P1 fish were generated in 2020. Approximately 50 nl of solution, composed of 1 μg/μl Cas9 protein (1 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA MC4R-A (0.5 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA2 (0.5 μl), 50 ng/μl donor plasmid (1 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN1 (0.5 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN2 (0.5 μl) and 60% phenol red (1 μl), was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. Six channel catfish (N1-N6) were not injected to use as controls. Five out of six channel catfish (A1, A2, A4, A5, A6) are positive for the ccβA-msEvol2 transgene as indicated by 485 bp band. Six channel catfish (N7-N12) served as non-inject controls. None of the controls tested positive for the transgene. M indicates 1 kb marker.

FIG. 19—Mean eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) content (mg) per gram of muscle tissue in control (CNTRL), melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) knockout and MC4R knockout + ccβA-msEvol2 transgene (Evol2) knock-in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. The ccβA-msEvol2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Muscle was sampled from 3 fish from each treatment. Error bars indicate standard deviation. There was no significant difference in EPA or DHA levels between any of the groups using ANOVA (EPA: p=0.203; DHA: p=0.380).

FIG. 20—Comparison of the sire and dam general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) estimate percentages for the female channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) X male blue catfish (I. furcatus) hybrid mating for growth at 14-months post hatch raised in 50 L aquaria. The proportion of variation due to the dam, sire, dam x sire interaction and residual error is indicated by σ2GCAd, σ2GCAds, σ2SCA, and σ2E, respectively.

FIG. 21—Comparison of the sire and dam general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) estimate percentages for the female channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) X male blue catfish (I. furcatus) hybrid mating for growth at 40-months post hatch in 0.04 ha earthen ponds stocked at 14,000 fish/ha. The proportion of variation due to the dam, sire, dam x sire interaction and residual error is indicated by σ2GCAd, σ2GCAds, σ2SCA, and σ2E, respectively.

The figures herein are for illustrative purposes only and are not necessarily drawn to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

Before the present disclosure is described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular embodiments described, and as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferred methods and materials are now described.

All publications and patents cited in this specification are cited to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited. All such publications and patents are herein incorporated by references as if each individual publication or patent were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. Such incorporation by reference is expressly limited to the methods and/or materials described in the cited publications and patents and does not extend to any lexicographical definitions from the cited publications and patents. Any lexicographical definition in the publications and patents cited that is not also expressly repeated in the instant application should not be treated as such and should not be read as defining any terms appearing in the accompanying claims. The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present disclosure is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior disclosure. Further, the dates of publication provided could be different from the actual publication dates that may need to be independently confirmed.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the present disclosure. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order that is logically possible.

Where a range is expressed, a further aspect includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the disclosure. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the disclosure, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the disclosure. For example, where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the disclosure, e.g., the phrase “x to y” includes the range from ‘x’ to ‘y’ as well as the range greater than ‘x’ and less than ‘y’. The range can also be expressed as an upper limit, e.g. ‘about x, y, z, or less’ and should be interpreted to include the specific ranges of ‘about x’, ‘about y’, and ‘about z’ as well as the ranges of ‘less than x’, less than y′, and ‘less than z’. Likewise, the phrase ‘about x, y, z, or greater’ should be interpreted to include the specific ranges of ‘about x’, ‘about y’, and ‘about z’ as well as the ranges of ‘greater than x’, greater than y′, and ‘greater than z’. In addition, the phrase “about ‘x’ to ‘y’”, where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are numerical values, includes “about ‘x’ to about ‘y’”.

It should be noted that ratios, concentrations, amounts, and other numerical data can be expressed herein in a range format. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint. It is also understood that there are a number of values disclosed herein, and that each value is also herein disclosed as “about” that particular value in addition to the value itself. For example, if the value “10” is disclosed, then “about 10” is also disclosed. Ranges can be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms a further aspect. For example, if the value “about 10” is disclosed, then “10” is also disclosed.

It is to be understood that such a range format is used for convenience and brevity, and thus, should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. To illustrate, a numerical range of “about 0.1% to 5%” should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited values of about 0.1% to about 5%, but also include individual values (e.g., about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, and about 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., about 0.5% to about 1.1%; about 5% to about 2.4%; about 0.5% to about 3.2%, and about 0.5% to about 4.4%, and other possible sub-ranges) within the indicated range.

General Definitions

Unless defined otherwise, technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure pertains. Definitions of common terms and techniques in molecular biology may be found in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2^(nd) edition (1989) (Sambrook, Fritsch, and Maniatis); Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 4^(th) edition (2012) (Green and Sambrook); Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (1987) (F. M. Ausubel et al. eds.); the series Methods in Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc.): PCR 2: A Practical Approach (1995) (M. J. MacPherson, B. D. Hames, and G. R. Taylor eds.): Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual (1988) (Harlow and Lane, eds.): Antibodies A Laboratory Manual, 2^(nd) edition 2013 (E. A. Greenfield ed.); Animal Cell Culture (1987) (R. I. Freshney, ed.); Benjamin Lewin, Genes IX, published by Jones and Bartlet, 2008 (ISBN 0763752223); Kendrew et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, published by Blackwell Science Ltd., 1994 (ISBN 0632021829); Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: a Comprehensive Desk Reference, published by VCH Publishers, Inc., 1995 (ISBN 9780471185710); Singleton et al., Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology 2nd ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 1994), March, Advanced Organic Chemistry Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 1992); and Marten H. Hofker and Jan van Deursen, Transgenic Mouse Methods and Protocols, 2^(nd) edition (2011).

Definitions of common terms and techniques in chemistry and organic chemistry can be found in Smith. Organic Synthesis, published by Academic Press. 2016; Tinoco et al. Physical Chemistry, 5^(th) edition (2013) published by Pearson; Brown et al., Chemistry, The Central Science 14^(th) ed. (2017), published by Pearson, Clayden et al., Organic Chemistry, 2^(nd) ed. 2012, published by Oxford University Press; Carey and Sunberg, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Part A: Structure and Mechanisms, 5^(th) ed. 2008, published by Springer; Carey and Sunberg, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Part B: Reactions and Synthesis, 5^(th) ed. 2010, published by Springer, and Vollhardt and Schore, Organic Chemistry, Structure and Function; 8^(th) ed. (2018) published by W. H. Freeman.

Definitions of common terms, analysis, and techniques in genetics can be found in e.g., Hartl and Clark. Principles of Population Genetics. 4^(th) Ed. 2006, published by Oxford University Press. Published by Booker. Genetics: Analysis and Principles, 7^(th) Ed. 2021, published by McGraw Hill; Isik et la., Genetic Data Analysis for Plant and Animal Breeding. First ed. 2017. published by Springer International Publishing A G; Green, E. L. Genetics and Probability in Animal Breeding Experiments. 2014, published by Palgrave; Bourdon, R. M. Understanding Animal Breeding. 2000 2^(nd) Ed. published by Prentice Hall; Pal and Chakravarty. Genetics and Breeding for Disease Resistance of Livestock. First Ed. 2019, published by Academic Press; Fasso, D. Classification of Genetic Variance in Animals. First Ed. 2015, published by Callisto Reference; Megahed, M. Handbook of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 2013, published by Omniscriptum Gmbh & Co. Kg., LAP Lambert Academic Publishing; Reece. Analysis of Genes and Genomes. 2004, published by John Wiley & Sons. Inc; Deonier et al., Computational Genome Analysis. 5^(th) Ed. 2005, published by Springer-Verlag, New York; Meneely, P. Genetic Analysis: Genes, Genomes, and Networks in Eukaryotes. 3^(rd) Ed. 2020, published by Oxford University Press.

As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include both singular and plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

As used herein, “about,” “approximately,” “substantially,” and the like, when used in connection with a measurable variable such as a parameter, an amount, a temporal duration, and the like, are meant to encompass variations of and from the specified value including those within experimental error (which can be determined by e.g. given data set, art accepted standard, and/or with e.g. a given confidence interval (e.g. 90%, 95%, or more confidence interval from the mean), such as variations of +/−10% or less, +/−5% or less, +/−1% or less, and +/−0.1% or less of and from the specified value, insofar such variations are appropriate to perform in the disclosed invention. As used herein, the terms “about,” “approximate,” “at or about,” and “substantially” can mean that the amount or value in question can be the exact value or a value that provides equivalent results or effects as recited in the claims or taught herein. That is, it is understood that amounts, sizes, formulations, parameters, and other quantities and characteristics are not and need not be exact, but may be approximate and/or larger or smaller, as desired, reflecting tolerances, conversion factors, rounding off, measurement error and the like, and other factors known to those of skill in the art such that equivalent results or effects are obtained. In some circumstances, the value that provides equivalent results or effects cannot be reasonably determined. In general, an amount, size, formulation, parameter or other quantity or characteristic is “about,” “approximate,” or “at or about” whether or not expressly stated to be such. It is understood that where “about,” “approximate,” or “at or about” is used before a quantitative value, the parameter also includes the specific quantitative value itself, unless specifically stated otherwise.

The term “optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequent described event, circumstance or substituent may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not.

The recitation of numerical ranges by endpoints includes all numbers and fractions subsumed within the respective ranges, as well as the recited endpoints.

As used herein, a “biological sample” refers to a sample obtained from, made by, secreted by, excreted by, or otherwise containing part of or from a biologic entity. A biologic sample can contain whole cells and/or live cells and/or cell debris, and/or cell products, and/or virus particles. The biological sample can contain (or be derived from) a “bodily fluid”. The biological sample can be obtained from an environment (e.g., water source, soil, air, and the like). Such samples are also referred to herein as environmental samples. As used herein “bodily fluid” refers to any non-solid excretion, secretion, or other fluid present in an organism and includes, without limitation unless otherwise specified or is apparent from the description herein, amniotic fluid, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, bile, blood or component thereof (e.g. plasma, serum, etc.), breast milk, cerebrospinal fluid, cerumen (earwax), chyle, chyme, endolymph, perilymph, exudates, feces, female ejaculate, gastric acid, gastric juice, lymph, mucus (including nasal drainage and phlegm), pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pus, rheum, saliva, sebum (skin oil), semen, sputum, synovial fluid, sweat, tears, urine, vaginal secretion, vomit and mixtures of one or more thereof. Biological samples include cell cultures, bodily fluids, cell cultures from bodily fluids. Bodily fluids may be obtained from an organism, for example by puncture, or other collecting or sampling procedures.

As used herein, “administering” refers to any suitable administration for the agent(s) being delivered and/or subject receiving said agent(s) and can be oral, topical, intravenous, subcutaneous, transcutaneous, transdermal, intramuscular, intra joint, parenteral, intra-arteriole, intradermal, intraventricular, intraosseous, intraocular, intracranial, intraperitoneal, intralesional, intranasal, intracardiac, intraarticular, intracavernous, intrathecal, intravireal, intracerebral, and intracerebroventricular, intratympanic, intracochlear, rectal, vaginal, by inhalation, by catheters, stents or via an implanted reservoir or other device that administers, either actively or passively (e.g. by diffusion) a composition the perivascular space and adventitia. For example, a medical device such as a stent can contain a composition or formulation disposed on its surface, which can then dissolve or be otherwise distributed to the surrounding tissue and cells. The term “parenteral” can include subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-articular, intra-synovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intrahepatic, intralesional, and intracranial injections or infusion techniques. Administration routes can be, for instance, auricular (otic), buccal, conjunctival, cutaneous, dental, electro-osmosis, endocervical, endosinusial, endotracheal, enteral, epidural, extra-amniotic, extracorporeal, hemodialysis, infiltration, interstitial, intra abdominal, intra-amniotic, intra-arterial, intra-articular, intrabiliary, intrabronchial, intrabursal, intracardiac, intracartilaginous, intracaudal, intracavernous, intracavitary, intracerebral, intraci sternal, intracorneal, intracoronal (dental), intracoronary, intracorporus cavernosum, intradermal, intradiscal, intraductal, intraduodenal, intradural, intraepidermal, intraesophageal, intragastric, intragingival, intraileal, intralesional, intraluminal, intralymphatic, intramedullary, intrameningeal, intramuscular, intraocular, intraovarian, intrapericardial, intraperitoneal, intrapleural, intraprostatic, intrapulmonary, intrasinal, intraspinal, intrasynovial, intratendinous, intratesticular, intrathecal, intrathoracic, intratubular, intratumor, intratym panic, intrauterine, intravascular, intravenous, intravenous bolus, intravenous drip, intraventricular, intravesical, intravitreal, iontophoresis, irrigation, laryngeal, nasal, nasogastric, occlusive dressing technique, ophthalmic, oral, oropharyngeal, other, parenteral, percutaneous, periarticular, peridural, perineural, periodontal, rectal, respiratory (inhalation), retrobulbar, soft tissue, subarachnoid, subconjunctival, subcutaneous, sublingual, submucosal, topical, transdermal, transmucosal, transplacental, transtracheal, transtympanic, ureteral, urethral, and/or vaginal administration, and/or any combination of the above administration routes, which typically depends on the disease to be treated, subject being treated, and/or agent(s) being administered.

As used herein, “control” refers to an alternative subject or sample used in an experiment for comparison purpose and included to minimize or distinguish the effect of variables other than an independent variable.

As used herein with reference to the relationship between DNA, cDNA, cRNA, RNA, protein/peptides, and the like “corresponding to” or “encoding” (used interchangeably herein) refers to the underlying biological relationship between these different molecules. As such, one of skill in the art would understand that operatively “corresponding to” can direct them to determine the possible underlying and/or resulting sequences of other molecules given the sequence of any other molecule which has a similar biological relationship with these molecules. For example, from a DNA sequence an RNA sequence can be determined and from an RNA sequence a cDNA sequence can be determined.

As used herein, “deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)” and “ribonucleic acid (RNA)” can generally refer to any polyribonucleotide or polydeoxribonucleotide (collectively polynucleotides), which may be unmodified RNA or DNA or modified RNA or DNA. RNA can be in the form of non-coding RNA such as tRNA (transfer RNA), snRNA (small nuclear RNA), rRNA (ribosomal RNA), anti-sense RNA, RNAi (RNA interference construct), siRNA (short interfering RNA), microRNA (miRNA), or ribozymes, aptamers, guide RNA (gRNA) or coding mRNA (messenger RNA).

The terms “subject,” “individual,” and are used interchangeably herein to refer to a vertebrate, preferably a fish, more preferably a catfish, such as a channel catfish or hybrid thereof. Tissues, cells and their progeny of a biological entity obtained in vivo or cultured in vitro are also encompassed.

A “suitable control” is a control that will be instantly appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art as one that is included such that it can be determined if the variable being evaluated an effect, such as a desired effect or hypothesized effect. One of ordinary skill in the art will also instantly appreciate based on inter alia, the context, the variable(s), the desired or hypothesized effect, what is a suitable or an appropriate control needed. An exemplary suitable control for an engineered fish described herein is a non-engineered, full sibling, fish. For example, a suitable control for an engineered (such as an edited) fish having a modified melanocortin 4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both can be a non-engineered (e.g., non-edited) full-sibling to the engineered fish.

As used herein, “expression” refers to the process by which polynucleotides are transcribed into RNA transcripts. In the context of mRNA and other translated RNA species, “expression” also refers to the process or processes by which the transcribed RNA is subsequently translated into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. In some instances, “expression” can also be a reflection of the stability of a given RNA. For example, when one measures RNA, depending on the method of detection and/or quantification of the RNA as well as other techniques used in conjunction with RNA detection and/or quantification, it can be that increased/decreased RNA transcript levels are the result of increased/decreased transcription and/or increased/decreased stability and/or degradation of the RNA transcript. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate these techniques and the relation “expression” in these various contexts to the underlying biological mechanisms.

As used herein, “gene” refers to a hereditary unit corresponding to a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and that contains the genetic instruction for a characteristic(s) or trait(s) in an organism. The term gene can refer to or include translated and/or untranslated regions of a genome. “Gene” can refer to the specific sequence of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA transcript that can be translated into a polypeptide or be a catalytic RNA molecule, including but not limited to, tRNA, siRNA, piRNA, miRNA, long-non-coding RNA and shRNA.

As used herein “increased expression” or “overexpression” are both used to refer to an increased expression of a gene, such as a gene relating to an antigen processing and/or presentation pathway, or gene product thereof in a sample as compared to the expression of said gene or gene product in a suitable control. The term “ increased expression” preferably refers to 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%, 160%, 170%, 180%, 190%, 200%, 210%, 220%, 230%, 240%, 250%, 260%, 270%, 280%, 290%, 300%, 310%, 320%, 330%, 340%, 350%, 360%, 370%, 380%, 390%, 400%, 410%, 420%, 430%, 440%, 450%, 460%, 470%, 480%, 490%, 500%, 510%, 520%, 530%, 540%, 550%, 560%, 570%, 580%, 590%, 600%, 610%, 620%, 630%, 640%, 650%, 660%, 670%, 680%, 690%, 700%, 710%, 720%, 730%, 740%, 750%, 760%, 770%, 780%, 790%, 800%, 810%, 820%, 830%, 840%, 850%, 860%, 870%, 880%, 890%, 900%, 910%, 920%, 930%, 940%, 950%, 960%, 970%, 980%, 990%, 1000%, 1010%, 1020%, 1030%, 1040%, 1050%, 1060%, 1070%, 1080%, 1090%, 1100%, 1110%, 1120%, 1130%, 1140%, 1150%, 1160%, 1170%, 1180%, 1190%, 1200%, 1210%, 1220%, 1230%, 1240%, 1250%, 1260%, 1270%, 1280%, 1290%, 1300%, 1310%, 1320%, 1330%, 1340%, 1350%, 1360%, 1370%, 1380%, 1390%, 1400%, 1410%, 1420%, 1430%, 1440%, 1450%, 1460%, 1470%, 1480%, 1490%, or/to 1500% or more increased expression relative to a suitable control.

The term “modification causing said increased expression” or similar phrases refer to a modification in a gene which affects the expression level of that or another gene such that expression of that or another gene is increased. In particular embodiments, the modification is in a gene relating to an antigen processing pathway. In some embodiments, the modification is in a gene relating to the cross-presentation pathway. Said modification can be any nucleic acid modification including, but not limited to, a mutation, a deletion, an insertion, a replacement, a ligation, a digestion, a break and a frameshift. Said modification is preferably selected from the group consisting of a mutation, a deletion and a frameshift. In particular embodiments, the modification is a mutation which results in reduced expression of the functional gene product.

As used herein, “negative control” can refer to a “control” that is designed to produce no effect or result, provided that all reagents are functioning properly and that the experiment is properly conducted. Other terms that are interchangeable with “negative control” include “sham,” “placebo,” and “mock.”

As used herein, “nucleic acid,” “nucleotide sequence,” and “polynucleotide” can be used interchangeably herein and can generally refer to a string of at least two base-sugar-phosphate combinations and refers to, among others, single-and double-stranded DNA, DNA that is a mixture of single-and double-stranded regions, single- and double-stranded RNA, and RNA that is mixture of single- and double-stranded regions, hybrid molecules comprising DNA and RNA that may be single-stranded or, more typically, double-stranded or a mixture of single- and double-stranded regions. In addition, polynucleotide as used herein can refer to triple-stranded regions comprising RNA or DNA or both RNA and DNA. The strands in such regions can be from the same molecule or from different molecules. The regions may include all of one or more of the molecules, but more typically involve only a region of some of the molecules. One of the molecules of a triple-helical region often is an oligonucleotide. “Polynucleotide” and “nucleic acids” also encompasses such chemically, enzymatically or metabolically modified forms of polynucleotides, as well as the chemical forms of DNA and RNA characteristic of viruses and cells, including simple and complex cells, inter alia. For instance, the term polynucleotide as used herein can include DNAs or RNAs as described herein that contain one or more modified bases. Thus, DNAs or RNAs including unusual bases, such as inosine, or modified bases, such as tritylated bases, to name just two examples, are polynucleotides as the term is used herein. “Polynucleotide”, “nucleotide sequences” and “nucleic acids” also includes PNAs (peptide nucleic acids), phosphorothioates, and other variants of the phosphate backbone of native nucleic acids. Natural nucleic acids have a phosphate backbone, artificial nucleic acids can contain other types of backbones, but contain the same bases. Thus, DNAs or RNAs with backbones modified for stability or for other reasons are “nucleic acids” or “polynucleotides” as that term is intended herein. As used herein, “nucleic acid sequence” and “oligonucleotide” also encompasses a nucleic acid and polynucleotide as defined elsewhere herein.

As used herein, a “population” of cells is any number of cells greater than 1, but is preferably at least 1×10³ cells, at least 1×10⁴ cells, at least at least 1×10⁵ cells, at least 1×10⁶ cells, at least 1×10⁷ cells, at least 1×10⁸ cells, at least 1×10⁹ cells, or at least 1×10¹⁰ cells.

As used herein, “positive control” refers to a “control” that is designed to produce the desired result, provided that all reagents are functioning properly and that the experiment is properly conducted.

As used herein, “polypeptides” or “proteins” refers to amino acid residue sequences. Those sequences are written left to right in the direction from the amino to the carboxy terminus. In accordance with standard nomenclature, amino acid residue sequences are denominated by either a three letter or a single letter code as indicated as follows: Alanine (Ala, A), Arginine (Arg, R), Asparagine (Asn, N), Aspartic Acid (Asp, D), Cysteine (Cys, C), Glutamine (Gln, Q), Glutamic Acid (Glu, E), Glycine (Gly, G), Histidine (His, H), Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Lysine (Lys, K), Methionine (Met, M), Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Proline (Pro, P), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T), Tryptophan (Trp, W), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), and Valine (Val, V). “Protein” and “Polypeptide” can refer to a molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order. The term protein is used interchangeable with “polypeptide.” The order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the gene coding for the protein. Proteins can be required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs.

As used herein, the term “recombinant” or “engineered” can generally refer to a non-naturally occurring nucleic acid, nucleic acid construct, or polypeptide. Such non-naturally occurring nucleic acids may include natural nucleic acids that have been modified, for example that have deletions, substitutions, inversions, insertions, etc., and/or combinations of nucleic acid sequences of different origin that are joined using molecular biology technologies (e.g., a nucleic acid sequences encoding a fusion protein (e.g., a protein or polypeptide formed from the combination of two different proteins or protein fragments), the combination of a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide to a promoter sequence, where the coding sequence and promoter sequence are from different sources or otherwise do not typically occur together naturally (e.g., a nucleic acid and a constitutive promoter), etc. Recombinant or engineered can also refer to the polypeptide encoded by the recombinant nucleic acid. Non-naturally occurring nucleic acids or polypeptides include nucleic acids and polypeptides modified by man.

As used herein “reduced expression” or “underexpression” refers to a reduced or decreased expression of a gene, such as a gene relating to an antigen processing pathway, or a gene product thereof in sample as compared to the expression of said gene or gene product in a suitable control. As used throughout this specification, “suitable control” is a control that will be instantly appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art as one that is included such that it can be determined if the variable being evaluated an effect, such as a desired effect or hypothesized effect. One of ordinary skill in the art will also instantly appreciate based on inter alia, the context, the variable(s), the desired or hypothesized effect, what is a suitable or an appropriate control needed. In one embodiment, said control is a sample from a non-engineered organism, such as non-engineered a full sibling. The term “reduced expression” preferably refers to at least a 25% reduction, e.g., at least a 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% reduction, relative to such control.

The term “modification causing said reduced expression” and similar phrases refer to a modification in a gene which affects the expression level of that or another gene such that the expression level of that or another gene is reduced or decreased. In particular embodiments, the modification is in a gene relating to an antigen processing pathway. In some embodiments, the modification is in a gene relating to the cross-presentation pathway. Said modification can be any nucleic acid modification including, but not limited to, a mutation, a deletion, an insertion, a replacement, a ligation, a digestion, a break and a frameshift. Said modification is preferably selected from the group consisting of a mutation, a deletion and a frameshift. In particular embodiments, the modification is a mutation which results in reduced expression of the functional gene product.

As used herein, the term “specific binding” refers to non-covalent physical association of a first and a second moiety wherein the association between the first and second moieties is at least 2 times as strong, at least 5 times as strong as, at least 10 times as strong as, at least 50 times as strong as, at least 100 times as strong as, or stronger than the association of either moiety with most or all other moieties present in the environment in which binding occurs. Binding of two or more entities may be considered specific if the equilibrium dissociation constant, Kd, is 10⁻³ M or less, 10⁻⁴ M or less, 10⁻⁵ M or less, 10⁻⁶ M or less, 10⁻⁷ M or less, 10⁻⁸M or less, 10⁻⁹ M or less, 10⁻¹⁰ M or less, 10⁻¹¹ M or less, or 10⁻¹² M or less under the conditions employed, e.g., under physiological conditions such as those inside a cell or consistent with cell survival. In some embodiments, specific binding can be accomplished by a plurality of weaker interactions (e.g., a plurality of individual interactions, wherein each individual interaction is characterized by a Kd of greater than 10⁻³ M). In some embodiments, specific binding, which can be referred to as “molecular recognition,” is a saturable binding interaction between two entities that is dependent on complementary orientation of functional groups on each entity. Examples of specific binding interactions include primer-polynucleotide interaction, aptamer-aptamer target interactions, antibody-antigen interactions, avidin-biotin interactions, ligand-receptor interactions, metal-chelate interactions, hybridization between complementary nucleic acids, etc.

As used herein, “targeting moiety” refers to molecules, complexes, agents, and the like that is capable of specifically or selectively interacting with, binding with, acting on or with, or otherwise associating or recognizing a target molecule, agent, and/or complex that is associated with, part of, coupled to, another object, complex, surface, and the like, such as a cell or cell population, tissue, organ, subcellular locale, object surface, particle etc. Targeting moieties can be chemical, biological, metals, polymers, or other agents and molecules with targeting capabilities. Targeting moieties can be amino acids, peptides, polypeptides, nucleic acids, polynucleotides, lipids, sugars, metals, small molecule chemicals, combinations thereof, and the like. Targeting moieties can be antibodies or fragments thereof, aptamers, DNA, RNA such as guide RNA for a RNA guided nuclease or system, ligands, substrates, enzymes, combinations thereof, and the like. The specificity or selectivity of a targeting moiety can be determined by any suitable method or technique that will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, in some embodiments, the methods described herein include determining the disassociation constant for the targeting moiety and target. In some embodiments, the targeting moiety has a specificity the equilibrium dissociation constant, Kd, is 10⁻³ M or less, 10⁻⁴ M or less, 10⁻⁵ M or less, 10⁻⁶ M or less, 10⁻⁷ M or less, 10⁻⁸M or less, 10⁻⁹ M or less, 10⁻¹⁰ M or less, 10⁻¹¹ M or less, or 10⁻¹² M or less under the conditions employed, e.g., under physiological conditions such as those inside a cell or consistent with cell survival. In some embodiments, specific binding can be accomplished by a plurality of weaker interactions (e.g., a plurality of individual interactions, wherein each individual interaction is characterized by a Kd of greater than 10⁻³ M). In some embodiments, the targeting moiety has increased binding with, association with, interaction with, activity on as compared to non-targets, such as a 1 to 500 or more fold increase. Targets of targeting moieties can be amino acids, peptides, polypeptides, nucleic acids, polynucleotides, lipids, sugars, metals, small molecule chemicals, combinations thereof, and the like. Targets can be receptors, biomarkers, transporters, antigens, complexes, combinations thereof, and the like.

As used herein in the context of polynucleotides and polypeptides, “variant” can refer to a polynucleotide or polypeptide that differs from a reference polynucleotide or polypeptide, but retains essential and/or characteristic properties (structural and/or functional) of the reference polynucleotide or polypeptide. A typical variant of a polypeptide differs in amino acid sequence from another, reference polypeptide. The differences can be limited so that the sequences of the reference polypeptide and the variant are closely similar overall and, in many regions, identical. A variant and reference polypeptide may differ in nucleic or amino acid sequence by one or more modifications at the sequence level or post-transcriptional or post-translational modifications (e.g., substitutions, additions, deletions, methylation, glycosylations, etc.). A substituted nucleic acid may or may not be an unmodified nucleic acid of adenine, thiamine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, including any chemically, enzymatically or metabolically modified forms of these or other nucleotides. A substituted amino acid residue may or may not be one encoded by the genetic code. A variant of a polypeptide may be naturally occurring such as an allelic variant, or it may be a variant that is not known to occur naturally. “Variant” includes functional and structural variants.

As used herein, “wild-type” is the average form of an organism, variety, strain, gene, protein, or characteristic as it occurs in a given population in nature, as distinguished from mutant forms that may result from selective breeding, recombinant engineering, and/or transformation with a transgene.

Various embodiments are described hereinafter. It should be noted that the specific embodiments are not intended as an exhaustive description or as a limitation to the broader aspects discussed herein. One aspect described in conjunction with a particular embodiment is not necessarily limited to that embodiment and can be practiced with any other embodiment(s). Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment,” “an example embodiment,” means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment,” “in an embodiment,” or “an example embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment but may. Furthermore, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner, as would be apparent to a person skilled in the art from this disclosure, in one or more embodiments. Furthermore, while some embodiments described herein include some but not other features included in other embodiments, combinations of features of different embodiments are meant to be within the scope of the invention. For example, in the appended claims, any of the claimed embodiments can be used in any combination.

All publications, published patent documents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as though each individual publication, published patent document, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated as being incorporated by reference.

Overview

Global seafood consumption has reached 155 billion kg and is projected to reach 201 billion kg by 2030. This increase must come from aquaculture as capture fisheries has been level or declining for the past 50 years. The United States is the leading global importer of fish and fishery products, and 91% of the seafood consumed by value is imported, resulting in a trade deficit, which is increasing every year and is now $11.2 billion annually. The United States is not in a position to take advantage of the opportunity of the expanding global market of aquaculturally-grown fish, including catfish. At $2.64/kg multiplied by 46 billion kg, $121 billion of opportunity is on the table.

Americans alone are consuming 500 million kg of catfish (round or live weight, the billion pound + mark) (Jimmy Avery, Mississippi State University, personal communication). However, 350 million kg (projected round weight from fillets) are from Vietnamese imports of catfish. If this market could be recaptured, United States catfish production could be tripled, but production costs must be reduced to accomplish this. Further, an “empty niche” equivalent to $908 million in gross income to processors and $482 million to producers per year has been created from the implementation of USDA catfish inspection programs, which resulted in a decrease in Vietnamese catfish fillet imports, and a decrease in competing white fish (e.g., tilapia) importation/production.

Catfish farming was and is the largest aquaculture industry in the US topping out at 350 million kg produced annually and accounting for approximately 70% of all US aquaculture production in 2000. Because of high production costs, the US recession and competition with inexpensive imported fish, including Asian catfish, production dropped to 138 million kg by 2011. Now Vietnam provides 70% of the catfish fillets consumed in the US. Catfish production grew slightly to approximately 150 million kg in 2015-2017 and continues to slowly grow with 158 million kg produced in 2019 (USDA NASS 2020). Catfish farms that survived the downsizing have been quite profitable. However, US catfish farming must become more efficient, productive and sustainable or it could become susceptible during the next economic downturn or if fuel and feed costs rise again. In that event, the quantity of aquatic food that we import will continue to grow, which opens up another Pandora's box of food safety, food security, and national security issues. The importance of not relying on other countries for food should be even more obvious considering the potential ramifications of the current global health concerns.

As such, there exists a tremendous void and opportunity for improvement in catfish production within the U.S. and worldwide.

With that said, embodiments disclosed herein can provide engineered fish comprising a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, and/or a modified myostatin gene or gene product, and optionally one or more exogenous genes, wherein the expression of the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product is eliminated or decreased, the expression of the modified myostatin gene or gene product is eliminated or decreased. The engineered fish can have increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of n-3 fatty acids, sterility, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the engineered fish can be generated using a genetic engineering technique. Also described herein are feed and/or food products comprising an engineered fish described herein or a portion thereof. Other compositions, compounds, methods, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will be or become apparent to one having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings, detailed description, and examples. It is intended that all such additional compositions, compounds, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, and be within the scope of the present disclosure.

Engineered Fish

Described in certain example embodiments herein are engineered fish comprising a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, and/or a modified myostatin gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to a suitable control, and wherein the modified myostatin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises a modified myostatin gene or gene product, wherein the modified myostatin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to the suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of n-3 fatty acids, increased disease resistance, sterility, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control. In some embodiments, the sterility is reversible, such as with hormone therapy. In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish has increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in one or more cells or tissues, or both as compared to a suitable control.

In some embodiments, the body weight, body mass, growth rate, the amount of one or more n-3 fatty acids (e.g., DHA and/or EPA), or any combination thereof of the engineered fish are each individually increased 1 to 1000 fold or more, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, to/or 1000 fold or more, as compared to a suitable control.

In some embodiments, the body weight, body mass, growth rate, or any combination thereof of the engineered fish are each individually 1 to 1000 percent or more, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, to/or 1000 fold or more, as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the modified melanocortin 4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2-1000 fold. In some embodiments, the modified melanocortin 4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, to/or 1000 percent or more as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the modified myostatin gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2-1000 fold. In some embodiments, the modified myostatin gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, to/or 1000 fold as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, wherein the myostatin gene or gene product expression, activity, or both, are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, or both.

In some embodiments, the modification to the myostatin and/or mc4-r gene and/or addition of one or more exogenous genes herein can increase disease and/or infection resistance. The term “increase in infection and/or disease resistance” refers to an improved ability of an organism to not be infected by an infectious organism (or resist infection by said infectious organism), to clear and/or kill an infections organism (e.g., kill and/or clear more efficiently or faster), increased survivability (reduced mortality), decreased clinical or subclinical disease and/or symptoms or pathologies thereof, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the engineered fish has increased resistance to a pathogenic bacteria, protozoan, fungi, virus, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the engineered fish has increased resistance to disease or infection by Edwardsiella ictalurid, E. pisicida, Flavobacterium columnare, Aeromonas species pathogenic bacteria (e.g., A. hydrophila and other motile Aeromonas species bacteria), and combinations thereof, as compared to a wild-type, non-engineered control, or other suitable control. In some embodiments, the improved disease resistance is demonstrated by a reduction in the loss in feed conversion efficiency, growth rate, body mass, and/or other production characteristic that is normally reduced as a result of infection or disease. In some embodiments, the engineered fish has 1 to 100 percent less mortality to a pathogenic organism (e.g., Edwardsiella ictalurid, E. pisicida, Flavobacterium columnare, Aeromonas species pathogenic bacteria (e.g., A. hydrophila and other motile Aeromonas species bacteria), and combinations thereof) as compared to a suitable control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturus. In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is I. punctatus, I. furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus.

In some embodiments, the engineered fish is a hybrid of two or more catfish species, each selected from a species of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, and Noturus. In some embodiments, the engineered fish is a hybrid of two or more catfish species each selected from. punctatus, I. furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, and N. flavus.

In some embodiments, the engineered fish can have one or more insertions, deletions, or both in myostatin and/or mc4-r. In some embodiments, 1-5,000 or more nucleotides are inserted into the myostatin and/or mc4-r genes and/or regulatory regions thereof. In some embodiments, 1-5,000 or more nucleotides are deleted from the myostatin and/or mc4-r genes and/or regulatory regions thereof.

In some embodiments, the engineered fish contains a modification of the myostatin and/or mc4-r genes, and optionally, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more exogenous genes. In some embodiments, the engineered fish are generated by modifying one gene or adding one exogenous gene at a time. In some embodiments, the engineered fish are generated by modifying both myostatin and mc4-r at the same time. In some embodiments, the engineered fish are generated by modifying myostatin and/or mc4-r and, at the same time the modifications are made to myostatin and/or mc4-r, adding one or more exogenous genes. In some embodiments, engineered fish containing multiple modifications and/or additions or specific combinations of modifications and/or additions are generated by crossing engineered fish with at least one different modification or addition to obtain a desired combination of modification and/or additions.

In some embodiments, engineered fish of different species with the same or different modifications and/or additions are crossed to obtain a desired hybrid of genetic backgrounds with the desired modifications and/or additions.

The term “engineered fish” includes the F1 fingered fish as well as F2 and subsequent progeny thereof, gametes thereof and other cells therefrom.

The engineered fish can be grown, reproduced, and otherwise managed using routine aquaculture and farming techniques, which are generally known in the art. In some embodiments where the engineered fish are sterile, sterility can be reversed with appropriate hormone replacement treatments. In some embodiments, sterility in an engineered fish can be reversed by administering an amount of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), an amount of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) or both to one or both engineered fish in a mating pair. In some embodiments, the amount of hCG administered is about 25-200 μg/kg bodyweight, such as about 25 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 35 μg/kg, 40 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, 50 μg/kg, 55 μg/kg, 60 μg/kg, 65 μg/kg, 70 μg/kg, 75 μg/kg, 80 μg/kg, 85 μg/kg, 90 μg/kg, 95 μg/kg, 100 μg/kg, 105 μg/kg, 110 μg/kg, 115 μg/kg, 120 μg/kg, 125 μg/kg, 130 μg/kg, 135 μg/kg, 140 μg/kg, 145 μg/kg, 150 μg/kg, 155 μg/kg, 160 μg/kg, 165 μg/kg, 170 μg/kg, 175 μg/kg, 180 μg/kg, 185 μg/kg, 190 μg/kg, 195 μg/kg, to/or 200 μg/kg bodyweight.

In some embodiments, the amount of hCG ranges from about 1,000 IU to about 3,000 IU, such as about 1000 IU, 1010 IU, 1020 IU, 1030 IU, 1040 IU, 1050 IU, 1060 IU, 1070 IU, 1080 IU, 1090 IU, 1100 IU, 1110 IU, 1120 IU 1130 IU, 1140 IU 1150 IU, 1160 IU 1170 IU, 1180 IU, 1190 IU, 1200 IU, 1210 IU, 1220 IU, 1230 IU, 1240 IU, 1250 IU, 1260 IU, 1270 IU, 1280 IU, 1290 IU, 1300 IU, 1310 IU, 1320 IU, 1330 IU, 1340 IU, 1350 IU, 1360 IU, 1370 IU, 1380 IU, 1390 IU, 1400 IU, 1410 IU, 1420 IU, 1430 IU, 1440 IU, 1450 IU, 1460 IU, 1470 IU, 1480 IU, 1490 IU, 1500 IU, 1510 IU, 1520 IU, 1530 IU, 1540 IU, 1550 IU, 1560 IU, 1570 IU, 1580 IU, 1590 IU, 1600 IU, 1610 IU, 1620 IU, 1630 IU, 1640 IU, 1650 IU, 1660 IU, 1670 IU, 1680 IU, 1690 IU, 1700 IU, 1710 IU, 1720 IU, 1730 IU, 1740 IU, 1750 IU, 1760 IU, 1770 IU, 1780 IU, 1790 IU, 1800 IU, 1810 IU, 1820 IU, 1830 IU, 1840 IU, 1850 IU, 1860 IU, 1870 IU, 1880 IU, 1890 IU, 1900 IU, 1910 IU, 1920 IU, 1930 IU, 1940 IU, 1950 IU, 1960 IU, 1970 IU, 1980 IU, 1990 IU, 2000 IU, 2010 IU, 2020 IU, 2030 IU, 2040 IU, 2050 IU, 2060 IU, 2070 IU, 2080 IU, 2090 IU, 2100 IU, 2110 IU, 2120 IU, 2130 IU, 2140 IU, 2150 IU, 2160 IU, 2170 IU, 2180 IU, 2190 IU, 2200 IU, 2210 IU, 2220 IU, 2230 IU, 2240 IU, 2250 IU, 2260 IU, 2270 IU, 2280 IU, 2290 IU, 2300 IU, 2310 IU, 2320 IU, 2330 IU, 2340 IU, 2350 IU, 2360 IU, 2370 IU, 2380 IU, 2390 IU, 2400 IU, 2410 IU, 2420 IU, 2430 IU, 2440 IU, 2450 IU, 2460 IU, 2470 IU, 2480 IU, 2490 IU, 2500 IU, 2510 IU, 2520 IU, 2530 IU, 2540 IU, 2550 IU, 2560 IU, 2570 IU, 2580 IU, 2590 IU, 2600 IU, 2610 IU, 2620 IU, 2630 IU, 2640 IU, 2650 IU, 2660 IU, 2670 IU, 2680 IU, 2690 IU, 2700 IU, 2710 IU, 2720 IU, 2730 IU, 2740 IU, 2750 IU, 2760 IU, 2770 IU, 2780 IU, 2790 IU, 2800 IU, 2810 IU, 2820 IU, 2830 IU, 2840 IU, 2850 IU, 2860 IU, 2870 IU, 2880 IU, 2890 IU, 2900 IU, 2910 IU, 2920 IU, 2930 IU, 2940 IU, 2950 IU, 2960 IU, 2970 IU, 2980 IU, 2990 IU, to/or about 3000 IU.

In some embodiments, the amount of LHRH administered is about 25-200 μg/kg bodyweight, such as about 25 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 35 μg/kg, 40 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, 50 μg/kg, 55 μg/kg, 60 μg/kg, 65 μg/kg, 70 μg/kg, 75 μg/kg, 80 μg/kg, 85 μg/kg, 90 μg/kg, 95 μg/kg, 100 μg/kg, 105 μg/kg, 110 μg/kg, 115 μg/kg, 120 μg/kg, 125 μg/kg, 130 μg/kg, 135 μg/kg, 140 μg/kg, 145 μg/kg, 150 μg/kg, 155 μg/kg, 160 μg/kg, 165 μg/kg, 170 μg/kg, 175 μg/kg, 180 μg/kg, 185 μg/kg, 190 μg/kg, 195 μg/kg, to/or 200 μg/kg bodyweight. In some embodiments, the amount of LHRH ranges from about 1,000 IU to about 3,000 IU, such as about 1000 IU, 1010 IU, 1020 IU, 1030 IU, 1040 IU, 1050 IU 1060 IU 1070 IU 1080 IU, 1090 IU 1100 IU, 1110 IU, 1120 IU, 1130 IU 1140 IU 1150 IU, 1160 IU, 1170 IU, 1180 IU, 1190 IU, 1200 IU, 1210 IU, 1220 IU, 1230 IU, 1240 IU, 1250 IU, 1260 IU, 1270 IU, 1280 IU, 1290 IU, 1300 IU, 1310 IU, 1320 IU, 1330 IU, 1340 IU, 1350 IU, 1360 IU, 1370 IU, 1380 IU, 1390 IU, 1400 IU, 1410 IU, 1420 IU, 1430 IU, 1440 IU, 1450 IU, 1460 IU, 1470 IU, 1480 IU, 1490 IU, 1500 IU, 1510 IU, 1520 IU, 1530 IU, 1540 IU, 1550 IU, 1560 IU, 1570 IU, 1580 IU, 1590 IU, 1600 IU, 1610 IU, 1620 IU, 1630 IU, 1640 IU, 1650 IU, 1660 IU, 1670 IU, 1680 IU, 1690 IU, 1700 IU, 1710 IU, 1720 IU, 1730 IU, 1740 IU, 1750 IU, 1760 IU, 1770 IU, 1780 IU, 1790 IU, 1800 IU, 1810 IU, 1820 IU, 1830 IU, 1840 IU, 1850 IU, 1860 IU, 1870 IU, 1880 IU, 1890 IU, 1900 IU, 1910 IU, 1920 IU, 1930 IU, 1940 IU, 1950 IU, 1960 IU, 1970 IU, 1980 IU, 1990 IU, 2000 IU, 2010 IU, 2020 IU, 2030 IU, 2040 IU, 2050 IU, 2060 IU, 2070 IU, 2080 IU, 2090 IU, 2100 IU, 2110 IU, 2120 IU, 2130 IU, 2140 IU, 2150 IU, 2160 IU, 2170 IU, 2180 IU, 2190 IU, 2200 IU, 2210 IU, 2220 IU, 2230 IU, 2240 IU, 2250 IU, 2260 IU, 2270 IU, 2280 IU, 2290 IU, 2300 IU, 2310 IU, 2320 IU, 2330 IU, 2340 IU, 2350 IU, 2360 IU, 2370 IU, 2380 IU, 2390 IU, 2400 IU, 2410 IU, 2420 IU, 2430 IU, 2440 IU, 2450 IU, 2460 IU, 2470 IU, 2480 IU, 2490 IU, 2500 IU, 2510 IU, 2520 IU, 2530 IU, 2540 IU, 2550 IU, 2560 IU, 2570 IU, 2580 IU, 2590 IU, 2600 IU, 2610 IU, 2620 IU, 2630 IU, 2640 IU, 2650 IU, 2660 IU, 2670 IU, 2680 IU, 2690 IU, 2700 IU, 2710 IU, 2720 IU, 2730 IU, 2740 IU, 2750 IU, 2760 IU, 2770 IU, 2780 IU, 2790 IU, 2800 IU, 2810 IU, 2820 IU, 2830 IU, 2840 IU, 2850 IU, 2860 IU, 2870 IU, 2880 IU, 2890 IU, 2900 IU, 2910 IU, 2920 IU, 2930 IU, 2940 IU, 2950 IU, 2960 IU, 2970 IU, 2980 IU, 2990 IU, to/or about 3000 IU.

Hormone replacement therapy can be administered to female and male engineered fish. In some embodiments, the hormone replacement therapy regime is different between males and females. Administration can be by any suitable method. In some embodiments, administration is intraperitoneal. In some embodiments, where more than one hormone is administrated, administration can be simultaneous or sequential with different hormones being given at different times apart from each other. In some embodiments, multiple dosages (at the same or different amounts) can be administered. In some embodiments, a priming dose that contains about 20 percent of the total amount of hormone to be administered is given first followed at about 12-18 hours later, optionally 15 hours later, by a resolving dose that contains the remaining 80% of the amount of hormone to be administered.

Exogenous Genes and Constructs

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is modified to include and/or express one or more exogenous genes and/or gene products. In some embodiments, the one or more exogenous genes are selected from an elongase gene and/or gene product, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene and/or gene product, a cercopin gene and/or gene product, a cathelicidin gene and/or gene product, a growth hormone gene and/or gene product, or a follistatin gene and/or gene product. Genes and gene products as used in this context refer to complete genes or gene products or fragments or portions thereof that produce a functional gene or gene product.

In some embodiments, the elongase is a fatty acid elongase 2 gene and/or gene product. Exemplary fatty acid elongase genes and/or gene products are shown in Table 21. In some embodiments, the elongase gene is a masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene.

TABLE 21 Exogenous Elongase Genes and Gene Products RefSeq RefSeq Gene Gene Scientific Common Transcript Protein ID symbol Description name name accessions accessions 54326 Elovl2 elongation of very Mus musculus house mouse NM_019423.2 NP_062296.1 long chain fatty acids (FEN1/Elo2, SUR4/Elo3, yeast)-like 2 54898 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Homo sapiens human NM_017770.4 NP_060240.3 elongase 2 420858 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Gallus gallus chicken NM_001197308.1 NP_001184237.1 elongase 2 488219 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Canis lupus dog XM_014110644.3 XP_013966119.2 elongase 2 familiaris 498728 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Rattus norvegicus Norway rat XM_039096006.1 XP_038951934.1 elongase 2 548913 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed NM_001016159.2 NP_001016159.1 elongase 2 frog 615756 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bos taurus cattle NM_001083517.1 NP_001076986.1 elongase 2 678614 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Danio rerio zebrafish XM_005162571.4 XP_005162628.1 elongase 2 703030 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015135533.2 XP_014991019.1 elongase 2 750765 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_009450495.3 XP_009448770.1 elongase 2 100026914 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Monodelphis gray short-tailed XM_007487945.2 XP_007488007.1 elongase 2 domestica opossum 100063624 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Equus caballus horse XM_023624455.1 XP_023480223.1 elongase 2 100084190 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ornithorhynchus platypus XM_029053170.2 XP_028909003.2 elongase 2 anatinus 100153368 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sus scrofa pig XM_021100179.1 XP_020955838.1 elongase 2 100190615 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Taeniopygia zebra finch NM_001245548.1 NP_001232477.1 elongase 2 guttata 100192341 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Salmo salar Atlantic salmon NM_001136553.1 NP_001130025.1 elongase 2 100358530 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Oryctolagus rabbit XM_002714176.3 XP_002714222.1 elongase 2 cuniculus 100386025 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_002746228.4 XP_002746274.2 elongase 2 marmoset 100454419 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pongo abelii Sumatran XM_002816422.3 XP_002816468.1 elongase 2 orangutan 100472915 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ailuropoda giant panda XM_019796060.2 XP_019651619.2 elongase 2 melanoleuca 100538879 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Meleagris turkey XM_003204749.4 XP_003204797.1 elongase 2 gallopavo 100558809 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Anolis carolinensis green anole XM_008114988.1 XP_008113195.1 elongase 2 100600368 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Nomascus northern white- XM_030817289.1 XP_030673149.1 elongase 2 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100677669 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Loxodonta African savanna XM_010597575.2 XP_010595877.2 elongase 2 africana elephant 100724371 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Cavia porcellus domestic guinea XM_023564692.1 XP_023420460.1 elongase 2 pig 100764278 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_007647023.4 XP_007645213.1 elongase 2 100922613 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sarcophilus Tasmanian devil XM_003760177.4 XP_003760225.2 elongase 2 harrisii 100959216 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Otolemur garnettii small-eared XM_012804222.2 XP_012659676.1 elongase 2 galago 100979903 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pan paniscus pygmy XM_034961430.1 XP_034817321.1 elongase 2 chimpanzee 101024536 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Papio anubis olive baboon XM_009204445.4 XP_009202709.1 elongase 2 101041837 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_010338052.2 XP_010336354.1 elongase 2 monkey 101093184 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Felis catus domestic cat XM_011282182.3 XP_011280484.2 elongase 2 101116613 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ovis aries sheep XM_042236832.1 XP_042092766.1 elongase 2 101140898 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_031012491.1 XP_030868351.1 elongase 2 101280861 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Orcinus orca killer whale XM_004281036.3 XP_004281084.1 elongase 2 101328710 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tursiops truncatus common XM_033863642.1 XP_033719533.1 elongase 2 bottlenose dolphin 101379042 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Odobenus Pacific walrus XM_004403708.2 XP_004403765.1 elongase 2 rosmarus divergens 101421389 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Dasypus nine-banded XM_004476950.1 XP_004477007.1 elongase 2 novemcinctus armadillo 101518847 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ochotona princeps American pika XM_012931138.1 XP_012786592.1 elongase 2 101539805 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sorex araneus European shrew XM_012935044.1 XP_012790498.1 elongase 2 101567306 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Octodon degus degu XM_004628362.3 XP_004628419.1 elongase 2 101608833 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_004667953.1 XP_004668010.1 elongase 2 jerboa 101634823 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_012734658.1 XP_012590112.1 elongase 2 101640613 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Echinops telfairi small XM_013007127.1 XP_012862581.1 elongase 2 Madagascar hedgehog 101684694 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004753710.2 XP_004753767.1 elongase 2 furo 101699326 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_021260656.1 XP_021116315.1 elongase 2 glaber 101796744 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Anas mallard XM_038175034.1 XP_038030962.1 elongase 2 platyrhynchos 101813473 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ficedula albicollis Collared XM_016296596.1 XP_016152082.1 elongase 2 flycatcher 101838453 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_040755881.1 XP_040611815.1 elongase 2 auratus 101916881 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_005239094.2 XP_005239151.2 elongase 2 101939130 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chrysemys picta Painted turtle XM_005305217.3 XP_005305274.1 elongase 2 101977837 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_005327473.3 XP_005327530.1 elongase 2 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101989856 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Microtus prairie vole XM_005355080.1 XP_005355137.1 elongase 2 ochrogaster 102019043 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_005398829.2 XP_005398886.1 elongase 2 chinchilla 102039991 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Geospiza fortis medium ground- XM_005424919.3 XP_005424976.1 elongase 2 finch 102048237 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Falco cherrug Saker falcon XM_005434897.2 XP_005434954.2 elongase 2 102072400 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Zonotrichia white-throated XM_005481722.3 XP_005481779.1 elongase 2 albicollis sparrow 102096454 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Columba livia rock pigeon XM_021301338.1 XP_021157013.1 elongase 2 102106501 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground- XM_005525293.1 XP_005525350.1 elongase 2 humilis tit 102124038 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Macaca crab-eating XM_015449903.1 XP_015305389.1 elongase 2 fascicularis macaque 102177113 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Capra hircus goat XM_018039308.1 XP_017894797.1 elongase 2 102245763 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Myotis brandtii Brandt's bat XM_005878443.2 XP_005878505.1 elongase 2 102274409 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bos mutus wild yak XM_005905495.2 XP_005905557.2 elongase 2 102346933 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Latimeria coelacanth XM_006006388.1 XP_006006450.1 elongase 2 chalumnae 102378375 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator XM_006025429.1 XP_006025491.1 elongase 2 102403874 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bubalus bubalis water buffalo XM_025265691.1 XP_025121476.1 elongase 2 102423696 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Myotis lucifugus little brown bat XM_006092924.3 XP_006092986.3 elongase 2 102457606 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pelodiscus Chinese soft- XM_025179355.1 XP_025035140.1 elongase 2 sinensis shelled turtle 102468519 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tupaia chinensis Chinese tree XM_014591018.1 XP_014446504.1 elongase 2 shrew 102519943 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_006181086.3 XP_006181148.2 elongase 2 camel 102529612 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_031688102.1 XP_031543962.1 elongase 2 102566964 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Alligator American XM_006277463.3 XP_006277525.1 elongase 2 mississippiensis alligator 102693156 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Lepisosteus spotted gar XM_015354967.1 XP_015210453.1 elongase 2 oculatus 102750542 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006739817.2 XP_006739880.1 elongase 2 weddellii 102763123 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Myotis davidii XM_006769735.2 XP_006769798.1 elongase 2 102826889 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chrysochloris Cape golden XM_006864122.1 XP_006864184.1 elongase 2 asiatica mole 102860662 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Elephantulus Cape elephant XM_006891629.1 XP_006891691.1 elongase 2 edwardii shrew 102891448 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_015587266.2 XP_015442752.1 elongase 2 102925219 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Peromyscus prairie deer XM_006972802.2 XP_006972864.1 elongase 2 maniculatus bairdii mouse 102930723 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle XM_037893166.1 XP_037749094.1 elongase 2 102972782 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_015534683.1 XP_015390169.1 elongase 2 altaica 102991233 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_007119883.1 XP_007119945.1 elongase 2 103008327 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Balaenoptera XM_007174087.1 XP_007174149.1 elongase 2 acutorostrata scammoni 103027447 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Astyanax Mexican tetra XM_007260074.3 XP_007260136.2 elongase 2 mexicanus 103059597 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007437494.2 XP_007437556.1 elongase 2 103085369 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007466404.1 XP_007466466.1 elongase 2 dolphin 103120869 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Erinaceus western XM_007531354.2 XP_007531416.1 elongase 2 europaeus European hedgehog 103184556 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Callorhinchus elephant shark XM_007902629.1 XP_007900820.1 elongase 2 milii 103206303 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Orycteropus afer XM_007951750.1 XP_007949941.1 elongase 2 afer 103222171 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007973691.2 XP_007971882.1 elongase 2 sabaeus 103290183 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_008146115.2 XP_008144337.2 elongase 2 103531476 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Calypte anna Anna's XM_030446206.1 XP_030302066.1 elongase 2 hummingbird 103567404 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Equus przewalskii Przewalski's XM_008544052.1 XP_008542274.1 elongase 2 horse 103597257 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Galeopterus Sunda flying XM_008581075.1 XP_008579297.1 elongase 2 variegatus lemur 103613138 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Corvus American crow XM_017730645.1 XP_017586134.1 elongase 2 brachyrhynchos 103664917 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_040645042.1 XP_040500976.1 elongase 2 103732892 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_029562837.1 XP_029418697.1 elongase 2 mountains blind mole rat 103767367 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Manacus vitellinus golden-collared XM_018077704.2 XP_017933193.1 elongase 2 manakin 103778727 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Merops nubicus carmine bee- XM_008946331.1 XP_008944579.1 elongase 2 eater 103799833 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Acanthisitta rifleman XM_009072182.1 XP_009070430.1 elongase 2 chloris 103814974 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Serinus canaria Common canary XM_009088706.3 XP_009086954.1 elongase 2 103894334 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Aptenodytes emperor penguin XM_009273687.1 XP_009271962.1 elongase 2 forsteri 103919028 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin XM_009326472.1 XP_009324747.1 elongase 2 104021823 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Nipponia nippon crested ibis XM_009475431.1 XP_009473706.1 elongase 2 104038335 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian XM_009492668.1 XP_009490943.1 elongase 2 pelican 104052414 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phalacrocorax great cormorant XM_009513676.1 XP_009511971.1 elongase 2 carbo 104062153 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cuculus canorus common cuckoo XM_009564184.1 XP_009562479.1 elongase 2 104078112 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar XM_009579632.1 XP_009577927.1 elongase 2 104124799 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Egretta garzetta little egret XM_009637173.2 XP_009635468.2 elongase 2 104146087 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Struthio camelus XM_009677976.1 XP_009676271.1 elongase 2 australis 104161574 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cariama cristata Red-legged XM_009700062.1 XP_009698364.1 elongase 2 seriema 104277638 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Apaloderma bar-tailed trogon XM_009874335.1 XP_009872637.1 elongase 2 vittatum 104285703 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Charadrius killdeer XM_009884187.1 XP_009882489.1 elongase 2 vociferus 104302284 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Dryobates Downy XM_009902776.1 XP_009901078.1 elongase 2 pubescens woodpecker 104326707 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Opisthocomus XM_009931517.1 XP_009929819.1 elongase 2 hoazin 104354901 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Leptosomus cuckoo roller XM_009961944.1 XP_009960246.1 elongase 2 discolor 104366846 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tyto alba Barn owl XM_032987753.1 XP_032843644.1 elongase 2 104383589 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tauraco red-crested XM_009991783.1 XP_009990085.1 elongase 2 erythrolophus turaco 104391606 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chaetura pelagica chimney swift XM_010000930.1 XP_009999232.1 elongase 2 104408005 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Nestor notabilis Kea XM_010017437.1 XP_010015739.1 elongase 2 104484464 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chlamydotis Macqueen's XM_010126549.1 XP_010124851.1 elongase 2 macqueenii bustard 104500415 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Buceros XM_010144057.1 XP_010142359.1 elongase 2 rhinoceros silvestris 104504637 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Eurypyga helias sunbittern XM_010152948.1 XP_010151250.1 elongase 2 104542249 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mesitornis brown roatelo XM_010186489.1 XP_010184791.1 elongase 2 unicolor 104567573 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tinamus guttatus white-throated XM_010214407.1 XP_010212709.1 elongase 2 tinamou 104614582 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phaethon lepturus White-tailed XM_010285403.1 XP_010283705.1 elongase 2 tropicbird 104640284 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Balearica East African grey XM_010308604.1 XP_010306906.1 elongase 2 regulorum crowned-crane gibbericeps 104657375 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rhinopithecus golden snub- XM_030929547.1 XP_030785407.1 elongase 2 roxellana nosed monkey 104691457 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Corvus cornix XM_039549440.1 XP_039405374.1 elongase 2 cornix 104835307 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010573222.1 XP_010571524.1 elongase 2 leucocephalus 104861424 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Fukomys Damara mole-rat XM_010622857.1 XP_010621159.1 elongase 2 damarensis 104985620 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bison bison bison XM_010835862.1 XP_010834164.1 elongase 2 105019517 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Esox lucius northern pike XM_010885755.5 XP_010884057.1 elongase 2 105061619 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Camelus Bactrian camel XM_010945723.1 XP_010944025.1 elongase 2 bactrianus 105102078 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Camelus Arabian camel XM_031435200.1 XP_031291060.1 elongase 2 dromedarius 105300850 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pteropus large flying fox XM_011373238.2 XP_011371540.2 elongase 2 vampyrus 105482420 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Macaca pig-tailed XM_011742511.1 XP_011740813.1 elongase 2 nemestrina macaque 105526809 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Colobus XM_011962914.1 χP_011818304.1 elongase 2 angolensis palliatus 105546490 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mandrillus drill XM_011989694.1 XP_011845084.1 elongase 2 leucophaeus 105572532 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012031287.1 XP_011886677.1 elongase 2 105708738 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Aotus nancymaae Ma's night XM_012440345.2 XP_012295768.1 elongase 2 monkey 105823063 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Propithecus Coquerel's sifaka XM_012660149.1 XP_012515603.1 elongase 2 coquereli 105865215 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Microcebus gray mouse XM_012753660.1 XP_012609114.1 elongase 2 murinus lemur 105985948 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo XM_013016658.1 XP_012872112.1 elongase 2 rat 106041854 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Anser cygnoides XM_013190492.1 XP_013045946.1 elongase 2 domesticus 106483674 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Apteryx mantelli XM_013941658.1 XP_013797112.1 elongase 2 mantelli 106833224 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Equus asinus ass XM_014844387.1 XP_014699873.1 elongase 2 106854686 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sturnus vulgaris Common starling XM_014878743.1 XP_014734229.1 elongase 2 106887269 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Calidris pugnax ruff XM_014940726.1 XP_014796212.1 elongase 2 106972032 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027040288.1 XP_026896089.1 elongase 2 107111768 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Gekko japonicus XM_015412797.1 XP_015268283.1 elongase 2 107149247 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015494010.1 XP_015349496.1 elongase 2 marmota 107214099 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Parus major Great Tit XM_015649138.2 XP_015504624.1 elongase 2 107282982 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Protobothrops XM_015810824.1 XP_015666310.1 elongase 2 mucrosquamatus 107309660 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Coturnix japonica Japanese quail XM_015854637.2 XP_015710123.1 elongase 2 107497211 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016118815.2 XP_015974301.1 elongase 2 aegyptiacus 107530396 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Miniopterus XM_016204162.1 XP_016059648.1 elongase 2 natalensis 107565488 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Sinocyclocheilus XM_016250727.1 XP_016106213.1 elongase 2 grahami 107731498 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Sinocyclocheilus XM_016542599.1 XP_016398085.1 elongase 2 rhinocerous 108256217 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Ictalurus punctatus channel catfish XM_017452845.1 XP_017308334.1 elongase 2 108394296 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Manis javanica Malayan XM_037011682.1 XP_036867577.1 elongase 2 pangolin 108426576 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Pygocentrus red-bellied XM_017696189.2 XP_017551678.1 elongase 2 nattereri piranha 108494277 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lepidothrix blue-crowned XM_017808627.1 XP_017664116.1 elongase 2 coronata manakin 108541609 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rhinopithecus black snub-nosed XM_017891169.1 XP_017746658.1 elongase 2 bieti monkey 108788457 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Nanorana parkeri XM_018558212.1 XP_018413714.1 elongase 2 108927542 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Scleropages Asian XM_018740928.2 XP_018596444.1 elongase 2 formosus bonytongue 109249646 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Panthera pardus leopard XM_019420122.1 XP_019275667.1 elongase 2 109301401 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Gavialis Gharial XM_019522561.1 XP_019378106.1 elongase 2 gangeticus 109315505 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Crocodylus Australian XM_019543236.1 XP_019398781.1 elongase 2 porosus saltwater crocodile 109377448 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Hipposideros great roundleaf XM_019633791.1 XP_019489336.1 elongase 2 armiger bat 109576753 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019985380.1 XP_019840939.1 elongase 2 109678157 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020153813.1 XP_020009402.1 elongase 2 109909793 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Oncorhynchus coho salmon XM_020508818.2 XP_020364407.1 elongase 2 kisutch 109927373 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Rhincodon typus whale shark XM_020527370.1 XP_020382959.1 elongase 2 110080848 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pogona vitticeps central bearded XM_020797098.1 XP_020652757.1 elongase 2 dragon 110135785 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Odocoileus XM_020891074.1 XP_020746733.1 elongase 2 virginianus texanus 110192019 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phascolarctos koala XM_020963043.1 XP_020818702.1 elongase 2 cinereus 110307913 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021180182.2 XP_021035841.1 elongase 2 110333993 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021215811.2 XP_021071470.1 elongase 2 110394508 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021388406.1 XP_021244081.1 elongase 2 guineafowl 110473728 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lonchura striata Bengalese finch XM_021536528.1 XP_021392203.1 elongase 2 domestica 110554600 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021647284.1 XP_021502959.1 elongase 2 unguiculatus 110586935 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Neomonachus Hawaiian monk XM_021697232.1 XP_021552907.1 elongase 2 schauinslandi seal 111181363 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022586653.1 XP_022442361.1 elongase 2 leucas 111521796 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Piliocolobus Ugandan red XM_023185396.2 XP_023041164.2 elongase 2 tephrosceles Colobus 111840844 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Paramormyrops XM_023806138.1 XP_023661906.1 elongase 2 kingsleyae 111923801 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cyanistes blue tit XM_023919730.1 XP_023775498.1 elongase 2 caeruleus 111972818 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Salvelinus alpinus Arctic char XM_023999917.1 XP_023855685.1 elongase 2 112215311 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024374239.1 XP_024230007.1 elongase 2 tshawytscha 112309242 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Desmodus common vampire XM_024565445.1 XP_024421213.1 elongase 2 rotundus bat 112412459 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Neophocaena Yangtze finless XM_024764150.1 XP_024619918.1 elongase 2 asiaeorientalis porpoise asiaeorientalis 112622847 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Theropithecus gelada XM_025382827.1 XP_025238612.1 elongase 2 gelada 112658378 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Canis lupus dingo dingo XM_025444509.2 XP_025300294.2 elongase 2 112838398 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Callorhinus northern fur seal XM_025891265.1 XP_025747050.1 elongase 2 ursinus 112853721 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Puma concolor puma XM_025917283.1 XP_025773068.1 elongase 2 112920434 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_025999224.1 XP_025855009.1 elongase 2 112947295 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Nothoprocta XM_026039347.1 XP_025895132.1 elongase 2 perdicaria 112965355 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Apteryx rowi Okarito brown XM_026064264.1 XP_025920049.1 elongase 2 kiwi 113100627 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Carassius auratus goldfish XM_026265249.1 XP_026121034.1 elongase 2 113179871 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Urocitellus parryii Arctic ground XM_026384628.1 XP_026240413.1 elongase 2 squirrel 113264241 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ursus arctos XM_026511149.1 XP_026366934.1 elongase 2 horribilis 113413547 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Notechis scutatus mainland tiger XM_026669884.1 XP_026525669.1 elongase 2 snake 113445725 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pseudonaja textilis XM_026715044.1 XP_026570829.1 elongase 2 113477006 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Athene cunicularia burrowing owl XM_026843068.1 XP_026698869.1 elongase 2 113532568 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Pangasianodon striped catfish XM_026923982.2 XP_026779783.1 elongase 2 hypophthalmus 113579578 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Electrophorus electric eel XM_027013627.2 XP_026869428.1 elongase 2 electricus 113631605 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lagenorhynchus Pacific white- XM_027128178.1 XP_026983979.1 elongase 2 obliquidens sided dolphin 113659760 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Tachysurus yellow catfish XM_027172767.1 XP_027028568.1 elongase 2 fulvidraco 113881332 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bos indicus x hybrid cattle XM_027524288.1 XP_027380089.1 elongase 2 Bos taurus 113927700 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Zalophus California sea XM_027603729.2 XP_027459530.1 elongase 2 californianus lion 113952287 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Corapipo altera White-ruffed XM_027654178.1 XP_027509979.1 elongase 2 manakin 113964232 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027676199.1 XP_027532000.1 elongase 2 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 114000627 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pipra filicauda Wire-tailed XM_027745074.2 XP_027600875.1 elongase 2 manakin 114031665 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Vombatus ursinus common wombat XM_027846848.1 XP_027702649.1 elongase 2 114066346 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Empidonax traillii willow flycatcher XM_027900954.1 XP_027756755.1 elongase 2 114102814 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Marmota yellow-bellied XM_027948331.1 XP_027804132.1 elongase 2 flaviventris marmot 114212559 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Eumetopias Steller sea lion XM_028107472.1 XP_027963273.1 elongase 2 jubatus 114497924 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed XM_028513931.2 XP_028369732.1 elongase 2 discolor bat 114600905 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Podarcis muralis Common wall XM_028737736.1 XP_028593569.1 elongase 2 lizard 114617592 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Grammomys XM_028763188.1 XP_028619021.1 elongase 2 surdaster 114641802 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028790827.1 XP_028646660.1 elongase 2 calabaricus 114692106 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Peromyscus white-footed XM_028867764.2 XP_028723597.1 elongase 2 leucopus mouse 114776949 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Denticeps denticle herring XM_028966898.1 XP_028822731.1 elongase 2 clupeoides 114908105 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Monodon narwhal XM_029244406.1 XP_029100239.1 elongase 2 monoceros 115085073 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rhinatrema two-lined XM_029590659.1 XP_029446519.1 elongase 2 bivittatum caecilian 115104868 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Oncorhynchus sockeye salmon XM_029626224.1 XP_029482084.1 elongase 2 nerka 115149990 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Salmo trutta river trout XM_029692851.1 XP_029548711.1 elongase 2 115295180 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029943138.1 XP_029798998.1 elongase 2 115352905 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Aquila chrysaetos XM_030041684.2 XP_029897544.1 elongase 2 chrysaetos 115475348 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Microcaecilia XM_030210995.1 XP_030066855.1 elongase 2 unicolor 115513593 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030314853.1 XP_030170713.1 elongase 2 115646504 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Gopherus Goodes XM_030552394.1 XP_030408254.1 elongase 2 evgoodei thornscrub tortoise 115807988 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Chanos chanos milkfish XM_030769215.1 XP_030625075.1 elongase 2 115866006 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Globicephala long-finned pilot XM_030881170.1 XP_030737030.1 elongase 2 melas whale 115901130 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Camarhynchus XM_030943483.1 XP_030799343.1 elongase 2 parvulus 116082068 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Mastomys coucha southern XM_031358871.1 XP_031214731.1 elongase 2 multimammate mouse 116226514 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phasianus Ring-necked XM_031589434.1 XP_031445294.1 elongase 2 colchicus pheasant 116447009 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Corvus New Caledonian XM_032115546.1 XP_031971437.1 elongase 2 moneduloides crow 116460167 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032141099.1 XP_031996990.1 elongase 2 116485466 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032180825.1 XP_032036716.1 elongase 2 116512657 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Thamnophis Western XM_032223259.1 XP_032079150.1 elongase 2 elegans terrestrial garter snake 116531257 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032249947.1 XP_032105838.1 elongase 2 116589135 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mustela erminea ermine XM_032341099.1 XP_032196990.1 elongase 2 116644922 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032424779.1 XP_032280670.1 elongase 2 116761514 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032647321.1 XP_032503212.1 elongase 2 116795200 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chiroxiphia lance-tailed XM_032704677.1 XP_032560568.1 elongase 2 lanceolata manakin 116828590 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Chelonoidis Abingdon island XM_032786925.1 XP_032642816.1 elongase 2 abingdonii giant tortoise 116869933 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lontra canadensis Northern XM_032861562.1 XP_032717453.1 elongase 2 American river otter 116883459 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Rattus rattus black rat XM_032884607.1 XP_032740498.1 elongase 2 116968255 elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Amblyraja radiata thorny skate XM_033014952.1 XP_032870843.1 elongase 2 116999761 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Catharus ustulatus Swainson's XM_033066737.1 XP_032922628.1 elongase 2 thrush 117027580 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033115495.1 XP_032971386.1 elongase 2 ferrumequinum bat 117049711 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Lacerta agilis XM_033154558.1 XP_033010449.1 elongase 2 117086722 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033216216.1 XP_033072107.1 elonease 2 francoisi 117353468 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Geotrypetes XM_033929428.1 XP_033785319.1 elongase 2 seraphini 117672482 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pantherophis XM_034429132.1 XP_034285023.1 elongase 2 guttatus 117714168 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034510833.1 XP_034366724.1 elongase 2 niloticus 117873199 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Trachemys scripta XM_034762298.1 XP_034618189.1 elongase 2 elegans 118027455 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mirounga leonina Southern XM_035030842.1 XP_034886733.1 elongase 2 elephant seal 118090446 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Zootoca vivipara common lizard XM_035126179.1 XP_034982070.1 elongase 2 118161385 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Oxyura ruddy duck XM_035316683.1 XP_035172574.1 elongase 2 jamaicensis 118254766 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035560352.1 XP_035416245.1 elongase 2 118544670 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Halichoerus gray seal XM_036106560.1 XP_035962453.1 elongase 2 grypus 118584516 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Onychomys southern XM_036188815.1 XP_036044708.1 elongase 2 torridus grasshopper mouse 118626259 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Molossus Pallas's mastiff XM_036255659.1 XP_036111552.1 elongase 2 molossus bat 118677101 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Myotis myotis XM_036351888.1 XP_036207781.1 elongase 2 118701673 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Molothrus ater XM_036406431.1 XP_036262324.1 elongase 2 118723603 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036446103.1 XP_036301996.1 elongase 2 118848652 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Trichosurus common XM_036757654.1 XP_036613549.1 elongase 2 vulpecula brushtail 118904185 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036870069.1 XP_036725964.1 elongase 2 musculus 118914145 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Manis Chinese pangolin XM_036888692.1 XP_036744587.1 elongase 2 pentadactyla 118981153 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Sturnira XM_037037873.1 XP_036893768.1 elongase 2 hondurensis 119054858 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037152888.1 XP_037008783.1 elongase 2 jamaicensis eating bat 119145104 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037381203.1 XP_037237100.1 elongase 2 119251608 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037518862.1 XP_037374759.1 elongase 2 119540226 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Choloepus southern two- XM_037844309.1 XP_037700237.1 elongase 2 didactylus toed sloth 119697271 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Motacilla alba alba XM_038127818.1 XP_037983746.1 elongase 2 119817907 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Arvicola Eurasian water XM_038335364.2 XP_038191292.1 elongase 2 amphibius vole 119850346 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Dermochelys leatherback sea XM_038388180.1 XP_038244108.1 elongase 2 coriacea turtle 119949645 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Tachyglossus Australian XM_038771532.1 XP_038627460.1 elongase 2 aculeatus echidna 120231668 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039231859.1 XP_039087790.1 elongase 2 120310780 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039349553.1 XP_039205487.1 elongase 2 120398889 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Mauremys reevesii Reeves's turtle XM_039526646.1 XP_039382580.1 elongase 2 120503581 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039712209.1 XP_039568143.1 elongase 2 sparrow 120598646 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039857597.1 XP_039713531.1 elongase 2 120751963 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Hirundo rustica Barn swallow XM_040062529.1 XP_039918463.1 elongase 2 120869909 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040249253.1 XP_040105187.1 elongase 2 oryx 120940714 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Rana temporaria common frog XM_040353721.1 XP_040209655.1 elongase 2 121001860 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Bufo bufo common toad XM_040433078.1 XP_040289012.1 elongase 2 121020305 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Puma jaguarundi XM_040460297.1 XP_040316231.1 elongase 2 yagouaroundi 121065737 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Cygnus olor mute swan XM_040548730.1 XP_040404664.1 elongase 2 121085229 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040587684.1 XP_040443618.1 elongase 2 121159012 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Ochotona black-lipped pika XM_040983998.1 XP_040839932.1 elongase 2 curzoniae 121340442 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Onychostruthus white-rumped XM_041413198.1 XP_041269132.1 elongase 2 taczanowskii snowfinch 121357794 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Pyrgilauda rufous-necked XM_041475413.1 XP_041331347.1 elongase 2 ruficollis snowfinch 121434019 Elovl2 ELOVL fatty acid Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041632764.1 XP_041488698.1 elongase 2 121500799 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Vulpes lagopus Arctic fox XM_041772892.1 XP_041628826.1 elongase 2 121674597 ELOVL2 ELOVL fatty acid Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042049068.1 XP_041905002.1 elongase 2

In some embodiments, the n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene and/or gene product is a Δ-4 desaturase (DEGS1) gene and/or gene product, a Δ-5 desaturase gene (FADS1) and/or gene product, and/or a Δ-6 desaturase (FADS2) gene and/or gene product. Exemplary n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene and/or gene products are shown in Tables 22-24.

TABLE 22 Exemplary Δ-4 desaturase (DEGS1) gene and/or gene product. RefSeq RefSeq Gene Scientific Common Transcript Protein Gene ID symbol Description name name accessions accessions 8560 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Homo sapiens human NM_003676.4 NP_003667.1 sphingolipid 1 13244 Degs1 delta(4)- Mus musculus house mouse NM_007853.5 NP_031879.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 327075 degs1 delta(4)- Danio rerio zebrafish NM_212700.1 NP_997865.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 421327 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Gallus gallus chicken NM_001012565.1 NP_001012583.1 sphingolipid 1 457770 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_514228.5 XP_514228.3 sphingolipid 1 490395 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Canis lupus dog XM_038569744.1 XP_038425672.1 sphingolipid 1 familiaris 493214 degs1 delta(4)- Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed NM_001007484.1 NP_001007485.1 desaturase, frog sphingolipid 1 507290 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bos taurus cattle NM_001034289.2 NP_001029461.1 sphingolipid 1 702128 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey NM_001266006.1 NP_001252935.1 sphingolipid 1 100018776 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Monodelphis gray short-tailed XM_001367859.4 XP_001367896.1 sphingolipid 1 domestica opossum 100055442 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Equus caballus horse XM_023632619.1 XP_023488387.1 sphingolipid 1 100081682 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ornithorhynchus platypus XM_029047357.2 XP_028903190.1 sphingolipid 1 anatinus 100135677 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sus scrofa pig NM_001244121.1 NP_001231050.1 sphingolipid 1 100171788 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pongo abelii Sumatran NM_001131446.1 NP_001124918.1 sphingolipid 1 orangutan 100192315 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ovis aries sheep NM_001136489.1 NP_001129961.1 sphingolipid 1 100219126 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Taeniopygia guttata zebra finch XM_002196980.5 XP_002197016.1 sphingolipid 1 100355393 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Oryctolagus rabbit XM_008268365.2 XP_008266587.2 sphingolipid 1 cuniculus 100404123 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_002760474.5 XP_002760520.1 sphingolipid 1 marmoset 100478672 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ailuropoda giant panda XM_011228915.3 XP_011227217.1 sphingolipid 1 melanoleuca 100545871 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Meleagris gallopavo turkey XM_010706668.3 XP_010704970.1 sphingolipid 1 100551856 degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Anolis carolinensis green anole XM_003216073.3 XP_003216121.1 sphingolipid 1 100591022 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Nomascus northern white- XM_003275068.4 XP_003275116.1 sphingolipid 1 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100663518 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Loxodonta africana African savanna XM_010591079.2 XP_010589381.1 sphingolipid 1 elephant 100711880 degs1 delta(4)- Oreochromis Nile tilapia XM_003456661.4 XP_003456709.1 desaturase, niloticus sphingolipid 1 100717671 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Cavia porcellus domestic guinea XM_003474232.4 XP_003474280.1 sphingolipid 1 pig 100753569 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_007640891.3 XP_007639081.1 sphingolipid 1 100924041 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_031967060.1 XP_031822920.1 sphingolipid 1 100947778 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Otolemur garnettii small-eared galago XM_003790974.3 XP_003791022.1 sphingolipid 1 100990486 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pan paniscus pygmy XM_008967773.2 XP_008966021.1 sphingolipid 1 chimpanzee 101020274 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Papio anubis olive baboon XM_003893060.2 XP_003893109.1 sphingolipid 1 101034740 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_010340910.2 XP_010339212.1 sphingolipid 1 monkey 101083993 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Felis catus domestic cat XM_023247544.1 XP_023103312.1 sphingolipid 1 101151016 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_031001778.1 XP_030857638.1 sphingolipid 1 101175288 degs1 delta(4)- Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_004084367.4 XP_004084415.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 101269383 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Orcinus orca killer whale XM_004270998.3 XP_004271046.1 sphingolipid 1 101338156 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tursiops truncatus common XM_004315077.2 XP_004315125.1 sphingolipid 1 bottlenose dolphin 101365656 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Odobenus rosmarus Pacific walrus XM_004393531.2 XP_004393588.1 sphingolipid 1 divergens 101420853 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Dasypus nine-banded XM_012527622.2 XP_012383076.1 sphingolipid 1 novemcinctus armadillo 101475928 degs1 delta(4)- Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_004572054.2 XP_004572111.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 101532189 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004578611.2 XP_004578668.1 sphingolipid 1 101543104 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sorex araneus European shrew XM_012932038.1 XP_012787492.1 sphingolipid 1 101580020 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Octodon degus degu XM_012513755.2 XP_012369209.2 sphingolipid 1 101600315 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_004653409.1 XP_004653466.1 sphingolipid 1 jerboa 101630789 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_004695708.2 XP_004695765.1 sphingolipid 1 101649787 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Echinops telfairi small Madagascar XM_004699937.1 XP_004699994.1 sphingolipid 1 hedgehog 101677134 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004761878.2 XP_004761935.2 sphingolipid 1 furo 101722992 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004867439.2 XP_004867496.1 sphingolipid 1 glaber 101803108 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Anas platyrhynchos mallard XM_027453068.2 XP_027308869.1 sphingolipid 1 101820925 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ficedula albicollis Collared flycatcher XM_016297207.1 XP_016152693.1 sphingolipid 1 101834205 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_04073 7848.1 XP_040593782.1 sphingolipid 1 auratus 101919611 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_013302803.2 XP_013158257.1 sphingolipid 1 101978291 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_021727160.2 XP_021582835.1 sphingolipid 1 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101997050 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Microtus prairie vole XM_005348935.3 XP_005348992.1 sphingolipid 1 ochrogaster 102010618 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_005409229.2 XP_005409286.2 sphingolipid 1 chinchilla 102044700 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Geospiza fortis medium ground- XM_014309485.2 XP_014164960.1 sphingolipid 1 finch 102072480 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Zonotrichia white-throated XM_005488493.3 XP_005488550.1 sphingolipid 1 albicollis sparrow 102084187 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Columba livia rock pigeon XM_013370047.2 XP_013225501.1 sphingolipid 1 102110893 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground-tit XM_005523302.2 XP_005523359.1 sphingolipid 1 humilis 102125533 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005540946.2 XP_005541003.1 sphingolipid 1 macaque 102181802 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Capra hircus goat XM_018060204.1 XP_017915693.1 sphingolipid 1 102230059 degs1 delta(4)- Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_005812087.2 XP_005812144.2 desaturase, maculatus sphingolipid 1 102260316 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Myotis brandtii Brandt's bat XM_014539951.1 XP_014395437.1 sphingolipid 1 102270794 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bos mutus wild yak XM_005903725.2 XP_005903787.1 sphingolipid 1 102303533 degs1 delta(4)- Haplochromis Burton's XM_005947814.3 XP_005947876.1 desaturase, burtoni mouthbrooder sphingolipid 1 102357565 DEGS1 delta(4)- Latimeria coelacanth XM_006008937.2 XP_006008999.1 desaturase, chalumnae sphingolipid 1 102374259 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator XM_014524550.2 XP_014380036.2 sphingolipid 1 102405878 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bubalus bubalis water buffalo XM_006044914.2 XP_006044976.1 sphingolipid 1 102421059 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Myotis lucifugus little brown bat XM_006107344.3 XP_006107406.1 sphingolipid 1 102457738 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft- XM_006133418.3 XP_006133480.1 sphingolipid 1 shelled turtle 102546011 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_015234837.2 XP_015090323.1 sphingolipid 1 102559976 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Alligator American alligator XM_006276633.3 XP_006276695.1 sphingolipid 1 mississippiensis 102683140 degs1 delta(4)- Lepisosteus oculatus spotted gar XM_006638668.2 XP_006638731.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 102747118 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_031017231.1 XP_030873091.1 sphingolipid 1 weddellii 102768904 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Myotis davidii XM_015562362.1 XP_015417848.1 sphingolipid 1 102787838 degs1 delta(4)- Neolamprologus XM_006808305.2 XP_006808368.1 desaturase, brichardi sphingolipid 1 102813965 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chrysochloris Cape golden mole XM_006871142.1 XP_006871204.1 sphingolipid 1 asiatica 102884338 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_015592754.2 XP_015448240.1 sphingolipid 1 102902832 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_006988597.2 XP_006988659.1 sphingolipid 1 maniculatus bairdii 102936544 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle XM_037895657.1 XP_037751585.1 sphingolipid 1 102972723 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_015544465.1 XP_015399951.1 sphingolipid 1 altaica 102974202 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_007109729.1 XP_007109791.1 sphingolipid 1 103035033 degs1 delta(4)- Astyanax mexicanus Mexican tetra XM_007253188.3 XP_007253250.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 103057812 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007426288.3 XP_007426350.1 sphingolipid 1 103077083 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007454482.1 XP_007454544.1 sphingolipid 1 dolphin 103119842 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Erinaceus europaeus western European XM_007530169.2 XP_007530231.1 sphingolipid 1 hedgehog 103154293 degs1 delta(4)- Poecilia formosa Amazon molly XM_007575514.2 XP_007575576.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 103181614 degs1 delta(4)- Callorhinchus milii elephant shark NM_001292276.1 NP_001279205.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 103230017 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007988341.2 XP_007986532.1 sphingolipid 1 sabaeus 103293455 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_008149805.2 XP_008148027.1 sphingolipid 1 103357108 degs1 delta(4)- Stegastes partitus bicolor damselfish XM_008281513.1 XP_008279735.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 103387773 degsl delta(4)- Cynoglossus tongue sole XM_008322545.3 XP_008320767.1 desaturase, semilaevis sphingolipid 1 103476669 degs1 delta(4J- Poecilia reticulata guppy XM_008429155.2 XP_008427377.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 103529818 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Calypte anna Anna's XM_030447913.1 XP_030303773.1 sphingolipid 1 hummingbird 103556478 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008528625.1 XP_008526847.1 sphingolipid 1 103612696 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Corvus American crow XM_008630406.2 XP_008628628.1 sphingolipid 1 brachyrhynchos 103667253 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_040636142.1 XP_040492076.1 sphingolipid 1 103726263 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008823739.2 XP_008821961.1 sphingolipid 1 mountains blind mole rat 103779018 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Merops nubicus carmine bee-eater XM_008946635.1 XP_008944883.1 sphingolipid 1 103808615 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Acanthisitta chloris rifleman XM_009081407.1 XP_009079655.1 sphingolipid 1 103819278 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Serinus canaria Common canary XM_009093756.3 XP_009092004.1 sphingolipid 1 103894451 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Aptenodytes forsteri emperor penguin XM_009273836.2 XP_009272111.1 sphingolipid 1 103925021 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin XM_009333661.1 XP_009331936.1 sphingolipid 1 104019281 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Nipponia nippon crested ibis XM_009472521.1 XP_009470796.1 sphingolipid 1 104037434 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian pelican XM_009491384.1 XP_009489659.1 sphingolipid 1 104041661 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phalacrocorax carbo great cormorant XM_009500958.1 XP_009499253.1 sphingolipid 1 104067032 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cuculus canorus common cuckoo XM_009569720.1 XP_009568015.1 sphingolipid 1 104072071 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar XM_009575263.1 XP_009573558.1 sphingolipid 1 104124691 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Egretta garzetta little egret XM_009637063.2 XP_009635358.1 sphingolipid 1 104168857 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cariama cristata Red-legged XM_009709622.1 XP_009707924.1 sphingolipid 1 seriema 104252909 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Gavia stellata red-throated loon XM_009808959.1 XP_009807261.1 sphingolipid 1 104270260 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Apaloderma bar-tailed trogon XM_009864566.1 XP_009862868.1 sphingolipid 1 vittatum 104294660 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Charadrius vociferus killdeer XM_009894293.1 XP_009892595.1 sphingolipid 1 104300888 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Dryobates Downy XM_009901208.1 XP_009899510.1 sphingolipid 1 pubescens woodpecker 104315400 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Haliaeetus albicilla white-tailed eagle XM_009915343.1 XP_009913645.1 sphingolipid 1 104331968 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Opisthocomus XM_009937338.1 XP_009935640.1 sphingolipid 1 hoazin 104351728 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Leptosomus discolor cuckoo roller XM_009957894.1 XP_009956196.1 sphingolipid 1 104360506 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tyto alba Barn owl XM_032989465.1 XP_032845356.1 sphingolipid 1 104371359 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tauraco red-crested turaco XM_009978546.1 XP_009976848.1 sphingolipid 1 erythrolophus 104386200 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chaetura pelagica chimney swift XM_009994764.1 XP_009993066.1 sphingolipid 1 104401229 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Nestor notabilis Kea XM_010009488.1 XP_010007790.1 sphingolipid 1 104460504 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pterocles gutturalis yellow-throated XM_010082141.1 XP_010080443.1 sphingolipid 1 sandgrouse 104477354 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chlamydotis Macqueen's XM_010117418.1 XP_010115720.1 sphingolipid 1 macqueenii bustard 104487971 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Buceros rhinoceros XM_010138716.1 XP_010137018.1 sphingolipid 1 silvestris 104535614 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mesitornis unicolor brown roatelo XM_010193740.1 XP_010192042.1 sphingolipid 1 104552337 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Colius striatus speckled XM_010209034.1 XP_010207336.1 sphingolipid 1 mousebird 104570275 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tinamus guttatus white-throated XM_010217270.1 XP_010215572.1 sphingolipid 1 tinamou 104621624 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phaethon lepturus White-tailed XM_010288159.1 XP_010286461.1 sphingolipid 1 tropicbird 104631532 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Balearica regulorum East African grey XM_010298773.1 XP_010297075.1 sphingolipid 1 gibbericeps crowned-crane 104677277 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rhinopithecus golden snub-nosed XM_010382259.2 XP_010380561.1 sphingolipid 1 roxellana monkey 104838135 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010577696.1 XP_010575998.1 sphingolipid 1 leucocephalus 104938997 degs1 delta(4)- Larimichthys crocea large yellow XM_010755461.3 XP_010753763.1 desaturase, croaker sphingolipid 1 104957390 degs1 delta(4)- Notothenia coriiceps black rockcod XM_010785018.1 XP_010783320.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 104997878 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bison bison bison XM_010852846.1 XP_010851148.1 sphingolipid 1 105023239 degs1 delta(4)- Esox lucius northern pike XM_010892276.3 XP_010890578.2 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 105083946 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel XM_010973972.1 XP_010972274.1 sphingolipid 1 105099817 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Camelus Arabian camel XM_031438438.1 XP_031294298.1 sphingolipid 1 dromedarius 105292590 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011360847.2 XP_011359149.1 sphingolipid 1 105478262 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed macaque XM_011735397.1 XP_011733699.1 sphingolipid 1 105554481 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mandrillus drill XM_012000982.1 XP_011856372.1 sphingolipid 1 leucophaeus 105576957 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012040579.1 XP_011895969.1 sphingolipid 1 105722304 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_021677316.1 XP_021532991.1 sphingolipid 1 105863773 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Microcebus murinus gray mouse lemur XM_012751240.1 XP_012606694.1 sphingolipid 1 105916050 degs1 delta(4)- Fundulus mummichog XM_012850351.3 XP_012705805.1 desaturase, heteroclitus sphingolipid 1 105984962 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo rat XM_013015352.1 XP_012870806.1 sphingolipid 1 106482702 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Apteryx mantelli XM_013940323.1 XP_013795777.1 sphingolipid 1 mantelli 106535193 degs1 delta(4)- Austrofundulus XM_014032136.1 XP_013887590.1 desaturase, limnaeus sphingolipid 1 106549644 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Thamnophis sirtalis XM_0140673 47.1 XP_013922822.1 sphingolipid 1 106734250 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tupaia chinensis Chinese tree shrew XM_014585646.2 XP_014441132.2 sphingolipid 1 106833179 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Equus asinus ass XM_014844306.1 XP_014699792.1 sphingolipid 1 106853899 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sturnus vulgaris Common starling XM_014877403.1 XP_014732889.1 sphingolipid 1 106892892 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Calidris pugnax ruff XM_014950463.1 XP_014805949.1 sphingolipid 1 106920215 degs1 delta(4)- Poecilia mexicana XM_014991090.1 XP_014846576.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 106959557 degs1 delta(4)- Poecilia latipinna sailfin molly XM_015052202.1 XP_014907688.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 106983185 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027046350.1 XP_026902151.1 sphingolipid 1 107088921 degs1 delta(4)- Cyprinodon sheepshead XM_015381387.1 XP_015236873.1 desaturase, variegatus minnow sphingolipid 1 107121631 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Gekko japonicus XM_015424586.1 XP_015280072.1 sphingolipid 1 107140288 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015483322.1 XP_015338808.1 sphingolipid 1 marmota 107201542 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Parus major Great Tit XM_015620918.2 XP_015476404.1 sphingolipid 1 107292031 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Protobothrops XM_015821449.2 XP_015676935.1 sphingolipid 1 mucrosquamatus 107311009 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Coturnix japonica Japanese quail XM_015857166.2 XP_015712652.1 sphingolipid 1 107376444 degs1 delta(4)- Nothobranchius turquoise killifish XM_015945548.1 XP_015801034.1 desaturase, furzeri snhinuolinid 1 107521085 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016165515.2 XP_016021001.1 sphingolipid 1 aegyptiacus 107543612 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Miniopterus XM_016221173.1 XP_016076659.1 sphingolipid 1 natalensis 107565896 degs1 delta(4)- Sinocyclocheilus XM_016251192.1 XP_016106678.1 desaturase, grahami sphingolipid 1 108242396 degs1 delta(4)- Kryptolebias mangrove rivulus XM_017427192.3 XP_017282681.1 desaturase, marmoratus sphingolipid 1 108260864 degs1 delta(4)- Ictalurus punctatus channel catfish XM_017461523.1 XP_017317012.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 108405657 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_03 7022699.1 XP_036878594.1 sphingolipid 1 108412154 degs1 delta(4)- Pygocentrus red-bellied piranha XM_017684071.2 XP_017539560.1 desaturase, nattereri sphingolipid 1 108528244 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rhinopithecus bieti black snub-nosed XM_017869946.1 XP_017725435.1 sphingolipid 1 monkey 108787065 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Nanorana parkeri XM_018556510.1 XP_018412012.1 sphingolipid 1 108894847 degs1 delta(4)- Lates calcarifer barramundi perch XM_018693472.1 XP_018548988.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 108942606 degs1 delta(4)- Scleropages Asian bonytongue XM_018766047.2 XP_018621563.1 desaturase, formosus sphingolipid 1 109258915 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Panthera pardus leopard XM_019436136.1 XP_019291681.1 sphingolipid 1 109296892 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Gavialis gangeticus Gharial XM_019516510.1 XP_019372055.1 sphingolipid 1 109319767 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Crocodylus porosus Australian XM_019549533.1 XP_019405078.1 sphingolipid 1 saltwater crocodile 109381186 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019639605.1 XP_019495150.1 sphingolipid 1 armiger 109517137 degs1 delta(4)- Hippocampus comes tiger tail seahorse XM_019872099.1 XP_019727658.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 109570649 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019976755.1 XP_019832314.1 sphingolipid 1 109639876 degs1 delta(4)- Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020103564.1 XP_019959123.1 desaturase, olivaceus sphingolipid 1 109677085 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020153236.1 XP_020008825.1 sphingolipid 1 109964347 degs1 delta(4)- Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020607586.1 XP_020463242.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 109987225 degs1 delta(4)- Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_02063 8245.2 XP_020493901.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 110075366 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pogona vitticeps central bearded XM_020786571.1 XP_020642230.1 sphingolipid 1 dragon 110128634 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Odocoileus XM_020879496.1 XP_020735155.1 sphingolipid 1 virginianus texanus 110156995 degs1 delta(4)- Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020921229.1 XP_020776888.1 desaturase, pectinirostris mudskipper sphingolipid 1 110205533 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phascolarctos koala XM_020982183.1 XP_020837842.1 sphingolipid 1 cinereus 110292749 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021160292.2 XP_021015951.1 sphingolipid 1 110321736 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021198186.2 XP_021053845.1 sphingolipid 1 110396071 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021391384.1 XP_021247059.1 sphingolipid 1 guineafowl 110546668 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_02163 3648.1 XP_021489323.1 sphingolipid 1 unguiculatus 110571359 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Neomonachus Hawaiian monk XM_021679458.1 XP_021535133.1 sphingolipid 1 schauinslandi seal 110955379 degs1 delta(4)- Acanthochromis spiny chromis XM_022200345.1 XP_022056037.1 desaturase, polyacanthus sphingolipid 1 111177510 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022579299.2 XP_022435007.1 sphingolipid 1 leucas 111239209 degs1 delta(4)- Seriola dumerili greater amberjack XM_022769038.1 XP_022624759.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 111563648 degs1 delta(4)- Amphiprion clown XM_023262816.2 XP_023118584.1 desaturase, ocellaris anemonefish sphingolipid 1 111926254 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cyanistes caeruleus blue tit XM_023922903.1 XP_023778671.1 sphingolipid 1 112138714 degs1 delta(4)- Oryzias melastigma Indian medaka XM_024261325.2 XP_024117093.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 112318898 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Desmodus rotundus common vampire XM_024576132.1 XP_024431900.1 sphingolipid 1 bat 112622488 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Theropithecus gelada XM_025382253.1 XP_025238038.1 sphingolipid 1 gelada 112648843 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Canis lupus dingo dingo XM_025430726.2 XP_025286511.1 sphingolipid 1 112828600 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025877797.1 XP_025733582.1 sphingolipid 1 112863081 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Puma concolor puma XM_025926197.1 XP_025781982.1 sphingolipid 1 112923572 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_026003462.1 XP_025859247.1 sphingolipid 1 112954812 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Nothoprocta XM_026048066.1 XP_025903851.1 sphingolipid 1 perdicaria 112980024 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Dromaius emu XM_026094595.1 XP_025950380.1 sphingolipid 1 novaehollandiae 113034623 degs1 delta(4)- Astatotilapia eastern happy XM_026189355.1 XP_026045140.1 desaturase, calliptera sphingolipid 1 113131845 degs1 delta(4)- Mastacembelus zig-zag eel XM_026309554.1 XP_026165339.1 desaturase, armatus sphingolipid 1 113159160 degs1 delta(4)- Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026355706.1 XP_026211491.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 113195569 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Urocitellus panyii Arctic ground XM_026407142.1 XP_026262927.1 sphingolipid 1 squirrel 113262903 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ursus arctos XM_026509488.1 XP_026365273.1 sphingolipid 1 horribilis 113421693 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Notechis scutatus mainland tiger XM_026682214.1 XP_026537999.1 sphingolipid 1 snake 113433234 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pseudonaja textilis XM_026695688.1 XP_026551473.1 sphingolipid 1 113477792 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Athene cunicularia burrowing owl XM_026844406.1 XP_026700207.1 sphingolipid 1 113585484 degs1 delta(4)- Electrophorus electric eel XM_027022990.2 XP_026878791.1 desaturase, electricus sphingolipid 1 113628547 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Lagenorhynchus Pacific white-sided XM_027122282.1 XP_026978083.1 sphingolipid 1 obliquidens dolphin 113906438 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bos indicus x hybrid cattle XM_027564541.1 XP_027420342.1 sphingolipid 1 Bos taurus 113933334 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Zalophus California sea lion XM_027613326.2 XP_027469127.1 sphingolipid 1 californianus 113966774 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027681779.1 XP_027537580.1 sphingolipid 1 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 114073706 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Empidonax traillii willow flycatcher XM_027911438.1 XP_027767239.1 sphingolipid 1 114137810 degs1 delta(4)- Xiphophorus Monterrey XM_028006640.1 XP_027862441.1 desaturase, couchianus platy fish sphingolipid 1 114215576 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028111660.1 XP_027967461.1 sphingolipid 1 114447557 degs1 delta(4)- Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish XM_028423902.1 XP_028279703.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 114512331 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed XM_028531237.2 XP_028387038.1 sphingolipid 1 discolor bat 114571717 degs1 delta(4)- Perca flavescens yellow perch XM_028602855.1 XP_028458656.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 114666095 degs1 delta(4)- Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028820832.1 XP_028676665.1 desaturase, calabaricus sphingolipid 1 114684427 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Peromyscus white-footed XM_028859013.2 XP_028714846.1 sphingolipid 1 leucopus mouse 114870463 degs1 delta(4)- Betta splendens Siamese fighting XM_029175080.2 XP_029030913.1 desaturase, fish sphingolipid 1 114899593 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Monodon narwhal XM_029230508.1 XP_029086341.1 sphingolipid 1 monoceros 115020237 degs1 delta(4)- Cottoperca gobio XM_029450190.1 XP_029306050.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115055353 degs1 delta(4)- Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029521090.1 XP_029376950.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115086779 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rhinatrema two-lined caecilian XM_029593098.1 XP_029448958.1 sphingolipid 1 bivittatum 115288024 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029934932.1 XP_029790792.1 sphingolipid 1 115349823 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Aquila chrysaetos XM_030034558.2 XP_029890418.1 sphingolipid 1 chrysaetos 115399619 degs1 delta(4)- Salaries fasciatus jewelled blenny XM_030107119.1 XP_029962979.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115465477 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Microcaecilia XM_030195963.1 XP_030051823.1 sphingolipid 1 unicolor 115505554 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030303203.1 XP_030159063.1 sphingolipid 1 115560503 degs1 delta(4)- Gadus morhua Atlantic cod XM_030379953.1 XP_030235813.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115596268 degs1 delta(4)- Spares aurata gilthead seabream XM_030441159.1 XP_030297019.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115777501 degs1 delta(4)- Archocentres flier cichlid XM_030725422.1 XP_030581282.1 desaturase, centrarchus sphingolipid 1 115809600 degs1 delta(4)- Chanos chanos milkfish XM_030771324.1 XP_030627184.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 115859444 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030868395.1 XP_030724255.1 sphingolipid 1 whale 115901865 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Camarhynchus XM_030944859.1 XP_030800719.1 sphingolipid 1 parvulus 116065930 degs1 delta(4)- Sander lucioperca pikeperch XM_031321587.2 XP_031177447.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 116230921 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phasianus colchicus Ring-necked XM_031596381.1 XP_031452241.1 sphingolipid 1 pheasant 116333034 degs1 delta(4)- Oreochromis aureus XM_031756157.2 XP_031612017.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 116457596 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032136893.1 XP_031992784.1 sphingolipid 1 116487408 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032184323.1 XP_032040214.1 sphingolipid 1 116507429 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Thamnophis elegans Western terrestrial XM_032215551.1 XP_032071442.1 sphingolipid 1 garter snake 116559003 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032289371.1 XP_032145262.1 sphingolipid 1 116576227 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mustela erminea ermine XM_032318219.1 XP_032174110.1 sphingolipid 1 116625450 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032393972.1 XP_032249863.1 sphingolipid 1 116696464 degs1 delta(4J- Etheostoma orangethroat darter XM_032527495.1 XP_032383386.1 desaturase, spectabile sphingolipid 1 116712798 degs1 delta(4J- Xiphophorus hellerii green swordtail XM_032552638.1 XP_032408529.1 desaturase, sphingolipid 1 116757512 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032639229.1 XP_032495120.1 sphingolipid 1 116825592 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Chelonoidis Abingdon island XM_032781724.1 XP_032637615.1 sphingolipid 1 abingdonii giant tortoise 116855751 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Lontra canadensis Northern XM_032838739.1 XP_032694630.1 sphingolipid 1 American river otter 116911331 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Rattus rattus black rat XM_032915249.1 XP_032771140.1 sphingolipid 1 116993422 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Catharus ustulatus Swainson's thrush XM_033053946.1 XP_032909837.1 sphingolipid 1 117018533 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033099577.1 XP_032955468.1 sphingolipid 1 ferrumequinum bat 117044183 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Lacerta agilis XM_033144690.1 XP_033000581.1 sphingolipid 1 117076319 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033199663.1 XP_033055554.1 sphingolipid 1 francoisi 117356878 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Geotrypetes XM_033936726.1 XP_033792617.1 sphingolipid 1 seraphini 117671754 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pantherophis XM_034427913.1 XP_034283804.1 sphingolipid 1 guttatus 117874499 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Trachemys scripta XM_034764666.1 XP_034620557.1 sphingolipid 1 elegans 118012997 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mirounga leonina Southern elephant XM_035008641.1 XP_034864532.1 sphingolipid 1 seal 118164064 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck XM_035321339.1 XP_035177230.1 sphingolipid 1 118253056 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035557040.1 XP_035412933.1 sphingolipid 1 118552460 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036118904.1 XP_035974797.1 sphingolipid 1 118593545 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Onychomys torridus southern XM_036203089.1 XP_036058982.1 sphingolipid 1 grasshopper mouse 118640781 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Molossus molossus Pallas's mastiff bat XM_036277791.1 XP_036133684.1 sphingolipid 1 118678810 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Myotis myotis XM_036354851.1 XP_036210744.1 sphingolipid 1 118684957 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Molothrus ater XM_036380253.1 XP_036236146.1 sphingolipid 1 118727624 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036453431.1 XP_036309324.1 sphingolipid 1 118846622 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Trichosurus common brushtail XM_036755352.1 XP_036611247.1 sphingolipid 1 vulpecula 118905587 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036872278.1 XP_036728173.1 sphingolipid 1 musculus 118908735 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036879007.1 XP_036734902.1 sphingolipid 1 119003264 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Sturnira hondurensis XM_037069523.1 XP_036925418.1 sphingolipid 1 119044429 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Artibeus jamaicensis Jamaican fruit- XM_037138766.1 XP_036994661.1 sphingolipid 1 eating bat 119156321 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037405953.1 XP_037261850.1 sphingolipid 1 119244393 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037510170.1 XP_037366067.1 sphingolipid 1 119524427 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Choloepus southern two-toed XM_037823086.1 XP_037679014.1 sphingolipid 1 didactylus sloth 119853435 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Dermochelys leatherback sea XM_038396512.1 XP_038252440.1 sphingolipid 1 coriacea turtle 119940973 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038761388.1 XP_038617316.1 sphingolipid 1 aculeatus 120234158 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039235863.1 XP_039091794.1 sphingolipid 1 120307215 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039341695.1 XP_039197629.1 sphingolipid 1 120400955 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Mauremys reevesii Reeves's turtle XM_039530327.1 XP_039386261.1 sphingolipid 1 120505907 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039716858.1 XP_039572792.1 sphingolipid 1 sparrow 120619140 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039883318.1 XP_039739252.1 sphingolipid 1 120751038 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Hirundo rustica Barn swallow XM_040060325.1 XP_039916259.1 sphingolipid 1 120880367 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040263697.1 XP_040119631.1 sphingolipid 1 oryx 120937864 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Rana temporaria common frog XM_040351388.1 XP_040207322.1 sphingolipid 1 120999617 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Bufo bufo common toad XM_040430582.1 XP_040286516.1 sphingolipid 1 121067164 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Cygnus olor mute swan XM_040551321.1 XP_040407255.1 sphingolipid 1 121095978 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040611393.1 XP_040467327.1 sphingolipid 1 121160063 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Ochotona curzoniae black-lipped pika XM_040985749.1 XP_040841683.1 sphingolipid 1 121357002 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Pyrgilauda ruficollis rufous-necked XM_041473921.1 XP_041329855.1 sphingolipid 1 snowfinch 121435931 Degs1 delta 4-desaturase, Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041635511.1 XP_041491445.1 sphingolipid 1 121675998 DEGS1 delta 4-desaturase, Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042051888.1 XP_041907822.1 sphingolipid 1

TABLE 24 Exemplary Δ-5 desaturase (FADS1) gene and/or gene products RefSeq RefSeq Gene Scientific Common Transcript Protein Gene ID symbol Description name name accessions accessions 3992 FADS1 fatty acid Homo sapiens human NM_013402.7 NP_037534.5 desaturase 1 76267 Fads1 fatty acid Mus musculus house mouse NM_146094.2 NP_666206.1 desaturase 1 84575 Fads1 fatty acid Rattus norvegicus Norway rat XM_006231075.4 XP_006231137.1 desaturase 1 423120 FADS1 fatty acid Gallus gallus chicken XM_421052.6 XP_421052.4 desaturase 1 444995 FADS1 fatty acid Sus scrofa pig NM_001113041.1 NP_001106512.1 desaturase 1 451243 FADS1 fatty acid Pan troglodytes chimpanzee NM_001364483.1 NP_001351412.1 desaturase 1 483793 FADS1 fatty acid Canis lupus dog XM_014120903.3 XP_013976378.2 desaturase 1 familiaris 533107 FADS1 fatty acid Bos taurus cattle XM_005226961.4 XP_005227018.1 desaturase 1 722343 FADS1 fatty acid Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015113990.2 XP_014969476.1 desaturase 1 100126707 FADS1 fatty acid Papio anubis olive baboon NM_001112627.1 NP_001106097.1 desaturase 1 100225746 FADS1 fatty acid Taeniopygia guttata zebra finch XM_002194890.6 XP_002194926.1 desaturase 1 100342403 FADS1 fatty acid Oryctolagus rabbit XM_008274405.2 XP_008272627.2 desaturase 1 cuniculus 100389579 FADS1 fatty acid Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_003734280.4 XP_003734328.2 desaturase 1 marmoset 100436159 FADS1 fatty acid Pongo abelii Sumatran XM_002821675.4 XP_002821721.2 desaturase 1 orangutan 100472955 FADS1 fatty acid Ailuropoda giant panda XM_011233618.3 XP_011231920.3 desaturase 1 melanoleuca 100549825 FADS1 fatty acid Meleagris turkey XM_010711277.2 XP_010709579.2 desaturase 1 gallopavo 100596120 FADS1 fatty acid Nomascus northern white- XM_030810927.1 XP_030666787.1 desaturase 1 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100723348 Fads1 fatty acid Cavia porcellus domestic guinea XM_023563409.1 XP_023419177.1 desaturase 1 pig 100922163 FADS1 fatty acid Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_031942020.1 XP_031797880.1 desaturase 1 100954652 FADS1 fatty acid Otolemur garnettii small-eared XM_003798740.3 XP_003798788.1 desaturase 1 galago 100981162 FADS1 fatty acid Pan paniscus pygmy XM_003828463.3 XP_003828511.3 desaturase 1 chimpanzee 101052172 FADS1 fatty acid Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_003920210.3 XP_003920259.2 desaturase 1 monkey 101083966 FADS1 fatty acid Felis catus domestic cat XM_003993434.5 XP_003993483.2 desaturase 1 101109049 FADS1 fatty acid Ovis aries sheep XM_004019593.5 XP_004019642.1 desaturase 1 101136185 FADS1 fatty acid Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_004051322.3 XP_004051370.2 desaturase 1 101275971 FADS1 fatty acid Orcinus orca killer whale XM_004264199.2 XP_004264247.1 desaturase 1 101323401 FADS1 fatty acid Tursiops truncatus common XM_033860806.1 XP_033716697.1 desaturase 1 bottlenose dolphin 101347278 LOC101347278 fatty acid Trichechus manatus Florida manatee XM_004383859.3 XP_004383916.1 desaturase 1 latirostris 101364825 FADS1 fatty acid Odobenus rosmarus Pacific walrus XM_004410052.1 XP_004410109.1 desaturase 1 divergens 101394671 LOC101394671 fatty acid Ceratotherium southern white XM_004437464.2 XP_004437521.1 desaturase 1 simum simum rhinoceros 101417194 FADS1 fatty acid Dasypus nine-banded XM_023585916.1 XP_023441684.1 desaturase 1 novemcinctus armadillo 101524219 FADS1 fatty acid Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004599340.2 XP_004599397.2 desaturase 1 101540344 FADS1 fatty acid Sorex araneus European shrew XM_004620835.1 XP_004620892.1 desaturase 1 101584143 Fads1 fatty acid Octodon degus degu XM_004646760.2 XP_004646817.2 desaturase 1 101609121 Fads1 fatty acid Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_004667560.2 XP_004667617.2 desaturase 1 jerboa 101628625 FADS1 fatty acid Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_012725299.1 XP_012580753.1 desaturase 1 101661682 FADS1 fatty acid Echinops telfairi small Madagascar XM_00471493 8.1 XP_004714995.1 desaturase 1 hedgehog 101676081 FADS1 fatty acid Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004770328.2 XP_004770385.1 desaturase 1 furo 101698014 Fads1 fatty acid Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004874299.3 XP_004874356.1 desaturase 1 glaber 101799007 FADS1 fatty acid Anas platyrhynchos mallard XM_027459434.2 XP_027315235.2 desaturase 1 101809791 FADS1 fatty acid Ficedula albicollis Collared XM_005046422.2 XP_005046479.2 desaturase 1 flycatcher 101844332 Fads1 fatty acid Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_021226013.2 XP_021081672.1 desaturase 1 auratus 101864778 FADS1 fatty acid Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005577617.2 XP_005577674.1 desaturase 1 macaque 101871876 LOC101871876 fatty acid Melopsittacus budgerigar XM_034061396.1 XP_033917287.1 desaturase 1 undulatus 101912001 FADS1 fatty acid Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_013304043.2 XP_013159497.1 desaturase 1 101936861 FADS1 fatty acid Chrysemys picta Painted turtle XM_005289235.2 XP_005289292.1 desaturase 1 101971137 Fads1 fatty acid Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_005331512.4 XP_0053 31569.1 desaturase 1 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101999492 Fads1 fatty acid Microtus prairie vole XM_005369621.3 XP_005369678.1 desaturase 1 ochrogaster 102049758 FADS1 fatty acid Falco cherrug Saker falcon XM_014279317.2 XP_014134792.1 desaturase 1 102069595 FADS1 fatty acid Zonotrichia white-throated XM_014270343.2 XP_014125818.1 desaturase 1 albicollis sparrow 102098315 FADS1 fatty acid Columba livia rock pigeon XM_005511038.2 XP_005511095.1 desaturase 1 102112391 FADS1 fatty acid Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground-tit XM_005531768.2 XP_005531825.1 desaturase 1 humilis 102150261 FADS1 fatty acid Equus caballus horse XM_023654187.1 XP_023509955.1 desaturase 1 102178247 FADS1 fatty acid Capra hircus goat XM_018043052.1 XP_017898541.1 desaturase 1 102261592 FADS1 fatty acid Myotis brandtii Brandt's bat XM_005872201.2 XP_005872263.2 desaturase 1 102276098 FADS1 fatty acid Bos mutus wild yak XM_005901286.2 XP_005901348.1 desaturase 1 102405648 FADS1 fatty acid Bubalus bubalis water buffalo XM_025286506.1 XP_025142291.1 desaturase 1 102500595 FADS1 fatty acid Tupaia chinensis Chinese tree XM_014584608.1 XP_014440094.1 desaturase 1 shrew 102506763 FADS1 fatty acid Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_006173186.3 XP_006173248.1 desaturase 1 camel 102543424 FADS1 fatty acid Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_006214869.3 XP_006214931.1 desaturase 1 102739160 FADS1 fatty acid Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006730326.2 XP_006730389.1 desaturase 1 weddellii 102773181 FADS1 fatty acid Myotis davidii XM_015569831.1 XP_015425317.1 desaturase 1 102836291 FADS1 fatty acid Chrysochloris Cape golden mole XM_006875003.1 XP_006875065.1 desaturase 1 asiatica 102867262 FADS1 fatty acid Elephantulus Cape elephant XM_006899878.1 XP_006899940.1 desaturase 1 edwardii shrew 102894313 FADS1 fatty acid Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_006911219.3 XP_006911281.1 desaturase 1 102927379 Fads1 fatty acid Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_006993861.2 XP_006993923.1 desaturase 1 maniculatus bairdii 102968608 FADS1 fatty acid Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_007092116.1 XP_007092178.1 desaturase 1 altaica 102988776 FADS1 fatty acid Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_007106188.2 XP_007106250.2 desaturase 1 103008410 FADS1 fatty acid Balaenoptera XM_007174422.1 XP_007174484.1 desaturase 1 acutorostrata scammoni 103050792 FADS1 fatty acid Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007426542.2 XP_007426604.1 desaturase 1 103082696 FADS1 fatty acid Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007462164.1 XP_007462226.1 desaturase 1 dolphin 103171425 FADS1 fatty acid Ornithorhynchus platypus XM_029061341.2 XP_028917174.1 desaturase 1 anatinus 103200385 FADS1 fatty acid Orycteropus afer XM_007944893.1 XP_007943084.1 desaturase 1 afer 103234224 FADS1 fatty acid Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007995914.2 XP_007994105.2 desaturase 1 sabaeus 103303329 FADS1 fatty acid Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028137482.1 XP_027993283.1 desaturase 1 103532528 FADS1 fatty acid Calypte anna Anna's XM_030450969.1 XP_030306829.1 desaturase 1 hummingbird 103543089 FADS1 fatty acid Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008510001.1 XP_008508223.1 desaturase 1 103604811 FADS1 fatty acid Galeopterus Sunda flying XM_008589391.1 XP_008587613.1 desaturase 1 variegatus lemur 103614730 FADS1 fatty acid Corvus American crow XM_017732984.1 XP_017588473.1 desaturase 1 brachyrhynchos 103678230 FADS1 fatty acid Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_040638767.1 XP_040494701.1 desaturase 1 103729124 Fads1 fatty acid Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008827113.3 XP_008825335.1 desaturase 1 mountains blind mole rat 103822124 FADS1 fatty acid Serinus canaria Common canary XM_009097084.3 XP_009095332.1 desaturase 1 103907211 FADS1 fatty acid Aptenodytes emperor penguin XM_009289346.2 XP_009287621.1 desaturase 1 forsteri 103925828 FADS1 fatty acid Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin XM_009334599.1 XP_009332874.1 desaturase 1 104009483 FADS1 fatty acid Nipponia nippon crested ibis XM_009461488.1 XP_009459763.1 desaturase 1 104051707 FADS1 fatty acid Phalacrocorax great cormorant XM_009512820.1 XP_009511115.1 desaturase 1 carbo 104062401 FADS1 fatty acid Cuculus canorus common cuckoo XM_009564456.1 XP_009562751.1 desaturase 1 104287519 FADS1 fatty acid Charadrius killdeer XM_009886236.1 XP_009884538.1 desaturase 1 vociferus 104304441 FADS1 fatty acid Dryobates Downy XM_009905182.1 XP_009903484.1 desaturase 1 pubescens woodpecker 104339408 FADS1 fatty acid Opisthocomus XM_009945560.1 XP_009943862.1 desaturase 1 hoazin 104368249 FADS1 fatty acid Tyto alba Barn owl XM_033006787.1 XP_032862678.1 desaturase 1 104397493 FADS1 fatty acid Chaetura pelagica chimney swift XM_010007454.1 XP_010005756.1 desaturase 1 104679375 FADS1 fatty acid Rhinopithecus golden snub-nosed XM_010384924.2 XP_010383226.1 desaturase 1 roxellana monkey 104829426 FADS1 fatty acid Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010563652.1 XP_010561954.1 desaturase 1 leucocephalus 104868384 Fads1 fatty acid Fukomys Damara mole-rat XM_033756779.1 XP_033612670.1 desaturase 1 damarensis 104998703 FADS1 fatty acid Bison bison bison XM_010854034.1 XP_010852336.1 desaturase 1 105070110 FADS1 fatty acid Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel XM_010956404.1 XP_010954706.1 desaturase 1 105094872 FADS1 fatty acid Camelus Arabian camel XM_010986962.2 XP_010985264.1 desaturase 1 dromedarius 105297785 FADS1 fatty acid Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011368614.1 XP_011366916.1 desaturase 1 105469425 FADS1 fatty acid Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed XM_011720415.2 XP_011718717.1 desaturase 1 macaque 105512288 FADS1 fatty acid Colobus angolensis XM_011942713.1 XP_011798103.1 desaturase 1 palliatus 105577579 FADS1 fatty acid Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012042106.1 XP_011897496.1 desaturase 1 105718626 FADS1 fatty acid Aotus nancymaae Ma's night XM_012454398.1 XP_012309821.1 desaturase 1 monkey 105825052 FADS1 fatty acid Propithecus Coquerel's sifaka XM_012662718.1 XP_012518172.1 desaturase 1 coquereli 105878618 FADS1 fatty acid Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012778264.2 XP_012633718.1 desaturase 1 murinus 105995514 Fadsl fatty acid Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo rat XM_013029243.1 XP_012884697.1 desaturase 1 106033871 FADS1 fatty acid Anser cygnoides XM_013177618.1 XP_013033072.1 desaturase 1 domesticus 106146259 Fads1 fatty acid Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_013506431.1 XP_013361885.1 desaturase 1 chinchilla 106490045 FADS1 fatty acid Apteryx mantelli XM_013949377.1 XP_013804831.1 desaturase 1 mantelli 106538435 FADS1 fatty acid Thamnophis sirtalis XM_014052923.1 XP_013908398.1 desaturase 1 106847567 FADS1 fatty acid Equus asinus ass XM_014866888.1 XP_014722374.1 desaturase 1 106854757 FADS1 fatty acid Sturnus vulgaris Common stalling XM_014878837.1 XP_014734323.1 desaturase 1 106892012 FADS1 fatty acid Calidris pugnax ruff XM_014948877.1 XP_014804363.1 desaturase 1 106986968 FADS1 fatty acid Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027045943.1 XP_026901744.1 desaturase 1 107108852 FADS1 fatty acid Gekko japonicus XM_015409373.1 XP_015264859.1 desaturase 1 107135906 Fads1 fatty acid Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015478062.1 XP_015333548.1 desaturase 1 marmota 107501590 FADS1 fatty acid Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016127891.2 XP_015983377.1 desaturase 1 aegyptiacus 107527686 FADS1 fatty acid Miniopterus XM_016200471.1 XP_016055957.1 desaturase 1 natalensis 107977238 Fads1 fatty acid Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035437365.1 XP_035293256.1 desaturase 1 108286222 FADS1 fatty acid Cebus imitator Panamanian XM_017503841.2 XP_017359330.2 desaturase 1 white-faced capuchin 108392394 FADS1 fatty acid Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017652599.2 XP_017508088.1 desaturase 1 108503096 FADS1 fatty acid Lepidothrix blue-crowned XM_017826729.1 XP_017682218.1 desaturase 1 coronata manakin 108533599 FADS1 fatty acid Rhinopithecus bieti black snub-nosed XM_017878417.1 XP_017733906.1 desaturase 1 monkey 108794178 FADS1 fatty acid Nanorana parkeri XM_018565180.1 XP_018420682.1 desaturase 1 109246555 FADS1 fatty acid Panthera pardus leopard XM_019414636.1 XP_019270181.1 desaturase 1 109390020 FADS1 fatty acid Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019656000.1 XP_019511545.1 desaturase 1 armiger 109554369 FADS1 fatty acid Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019954808.1 XP_019810367.1 desaturase 1 109685566 Fads1 fatty acid Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020162494.1 XP_020018083.1 desaturase 1 110086192 FADS1 fatty acid Pogona vitticeps central bearded XM_020806984.1 XP_020662643.1 desaturase 1 dragon 110153006 FADS1 fatty acid Odocoileus XM_020916865.1 XP_020772524.1 desaturase 1 virginianus texanus 110195308 FADS1 fatty acid Phascolarctos koala XM_020968000.1 XP_020823659.1 desaturase 1 cinereus 110285897 Fads1 fatty acid Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021152361.2 XP_021008020.1 desaturase 1 110322451 Fads1 fatty acid Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021199127.2 XP_021054786.1 desaturase 1 110401255 FADS1 fatty acid Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021402136.1 XP_021257811.1 desaturase 1 guineafowl 110484927 FADS1 fatty acid Lonchura striata Bengalese finch XM_021555917.1 XP_021411592.1 desaturase 1 domestica 110548091 Fads1 fatty acid Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021636096.1 XP_021491771.1 desaturase 1 unguiculatus 110576324 FADS1 fatty acid Neomonachus Hawaiian monk XM_021685472.1 XP_021541147.1 desaturase 1 schauinslandi seal 111149587 LOC111149587 fatty acid Enhydra lutris XM_022506707.1 XP_022362415.1 desaturase 1 kenyoni 111183884 FADS1 fatty acid Delphi napterus beluga whale XM_022591790.2 XP_022447498.1 desaturase 1 leucas 111524317 FADS1 fatty acid Piliocolobus Ugandan red XM_023189473.2 XP_023045241.1 desaturase 1 tephrosceles Colobus 112317234 FADS1 fatty acid Desmodus rotundus common vampire XM_024574308.1 XP_024430076.1 desaturase 1 bat 112402054 FADS1 fatty acid Neophocaena Yangtze finless XM_024748579.1 XP_024604347.1 desaturase 1 asiaeorientalis porpoise asiaeorientalis 112606126 FADS1 fatty acid Theropithecus gelada XM_025356194.1 XP_025211979.1 desaturase 1 gelada 112828985 FADS1 fatty acid Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025878262.1 XP_025734047.1 desaturase 1 112911088 FADS1 fatty acid Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_025987460.1 XP_025843245.1 desaturase 1 112948005 FADS1 fatty acid Nothoprocta XM_026040204.1 XP_025895989.1 desaturase 1 perdicaria 112978023 FADS1 fatty acid Apteryx rowi Okarito brown XM_026091055.1 XP_025946840.1 desaturase 1 kiwi 112991696 FADS1 fatty acid Dromaius emu XM_026114362.1 XP_025970147.1 desaturase 1 novaehollandiae 113195848 Fads1 fatty acid Urocitellus parryii Arctic ground XM_026407518.1 XP_026263303.1 desaturase 1 squirrel 113246984 FADS1 fatty acid Ursus arctos XM_026487774.1 XP_026343559.1 desaturase 1 horribilis 113481355 FADS1 fatty acid Athene cunicularia burrowing owl XM_026850905.1 XP_026706706.1 desaturase 1 113611197 FADS1 fatty acid Lagenorhynchus Pacific white- XM_027089823.1 XP_026945624.1 desaturase 1 obliquidens sided dolphin 113886561 FADS1 fatty acid Bos indicus x hybrid cattle XM_027532901.1 XP_027388702.1 desaturase 1 Bos taurus 113914860 FADS1 fatty acid Zalophus California sea lion XM_027580436.2 XP_027436237.2 desaturase 1 californianus 113958842 FADS1 fatty acid Corapipo altera White-ruffed XM_027667413.1 XP_027523214.1 desaturase 1 manakin 113960646 FADS1 fatty acid Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027670310.1 XP_027526111.1 desaturase 1 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 113991950 FADS1 fatty acid Pipra filicauda Wire-tailed XM_027728729.2 XP_027584530.1 desaturase 1 manakin 114040670 FADS1 fatty acid Vombatus ursinus common wombat XM_027858795.1 XP_027714596.1 desaturase 1 114099687 Fads1 fatty acid Marmota yellow-bellied XM_027944073.1 XP_027799874.1 desaturase 1 flaviventris marmot 114220205 FADS1 fatty acid Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028117890.1 XP_027973691.1 desaturase 1 114499452 FADS1 fatty acid Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed XM_028515643.2 XP_028371444.1 desaturase 1 discolor bat 114629513 Fads1 fatty acid Grammomys XM_028777565.1 XP_028633398.1 desaturase 1 surdaster 114703435 Fads1 fatty acid Peromyscus white-footed XM_028884282.2 XP_028740115.1 desaturase 1 leucopus mouse 114886729 FADS1 fatty acid Monodon narwhal XM_029207625.1 XP_029063458.1 desaturase 1 monoceros 115079139 FADS1 fatty acid Rhinatrema two-lined XM_029582258.1 XP_029438118.1 desaturase 1 bivittatum caecilian 115306039 FADS1 fatty acid Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029956202.1 XP_029812062.1 desaturase 1 115468973 FADS1 fatty acid Microcaecilia XM_030201181.1 XP_030057041.1 desaturase 1 unicolor 115524909 FADS1 fatty acid Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030331683.1 XP_030187543.1 desaturase 1 115840661 FADS1 fatty acid Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030833959.1 XP_030689819.1 desaturase 1 whale 115904063 FADS1 fatty acid Camarhynchus XM_030949143.1 XP_030805003.1 desaturase 1 parvulus 116103544 Fads1 fatty acid Mastomys coucha southern XM_031389653.1 XP_031245513.1 desaturase 1 multimammate mouse 116445340 FADS1 fatty acid Corvus New Caledonian XM_032111897.1 XP_031967788.1 desaturase 1 moneduloides crow 116468867 FADS1 fatty acid Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032153057.1 XP_032008948.1 desaturase 1 116489696 FADS1 fatty acid Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032188248.1 XP_032044139.1 desaturase 1 116554913 FADS1 fatty acid Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032283167.1 XP_032139058.1 desaturase 1 116598319 FADS1 fatty acid Mustela erminea ermine XM_032356961.1 XP_032212852.1 desaturase 1 116638370 FADS1 fatty acid Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032414284.1 XP_032270175.1 desaturase 1 116757880 FADS1 fatty acid Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032640290.1 XP_032496181.1 desaturase 1 116789060 FADS1 fatty acid Chiroxiphia lance-tailed XM_032692393.1 XP_032548284.1 desaturase 1 lanceolata manakin 116830901 FADS1 fatty acid Chelonoidis Abingdon island XM_032790575.1 XP_032646466.1 desaturase 1 abingdonii giant tortoise 116880283 FADS1 fatty acid Lontra canadensis Northern XM_032879204.1 XP_032735095.1 desaturase 1 American river otter 116890942 Fads1 fatty acid Rattus rattus black rat XM_032891584.1 XP_032747475.1 desaturase 1 116958593 FADS1 fatty acid Petromyzon sea lamprey XM_032981312.1 XP_032837203.1 desaturase 1 marinus 116984727 fads1 fatty acid Amblyraja radiata thorny skate XM_033039059.1 XP_032894950.1 desaturase 1 116998114 FADS1 fatty acid Catharus ustulatus Swainson's thrush XM_033063520.1 XP_032919411.1 desaturase 1 117030354 FADS1 fatty acid Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033120392.1 XP_032976283.1 desaturase 1 ferrumequinum bat 117080259 FADS1 fatty acid Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033205135.1 XP_033061026.1 desaturase 1 francoisi 117352173 FADS1 fatty acid Geotrypetes XM_033928425.1 XP_033784316.1 desaturase 1 seraphini 117707570 Fads1 fatty acid Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034500975.1 XP_034356866.1 desaturase 1 niloticus 118015924 FADS1 fatty acid Mirounga leonina Southern elephant XM_035012987.1 XP_034868878.1 desaturase 1 seal 118167419 FADS1 fatty acid Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck XM_035326765.1 XP_035182656.1 desaturase 1 118249736 FADS1 fatty acid Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035549985.1 XP_035405878.1 desaturase 1 118554574 FADS1 fatty acid Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036122284.1 XP_035978177.1 desaturase 1 118594829 Fads1 fatty acid Onychomys southern XM_036205040.1 XP_036060933.1 desaturase 1 torridus grasshopper mouse 118627540 FADS1 fatty acid Molossus molossus Pallas's mastiff bat XM_036257757.1 XP_036113650.1 desaturase 1 118649002 FADS1 fatty acid Myotis myotis XM_036295665.1 XP_036151558.1 desaturase 1 118687144 FADS1 fatty acid Molothrus ater XM_036383893.1 XP_036239786.1 desaturase 1 118707199 FADS1 fatty acid Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036417212.1 XP_036273105.1 desaturase 1 118853379 FADS1 fatty acid Trichosurus common brushtail XM_036763402.1 XP_036619297.1 desaturase 1 vulpecula 118899179 FADS1 fatty acid Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036860450.1 XP_036716345.1 desaturase 1 musculus 118932245 FADS1 fatty acid Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036925532.1 XP_036781427.1 desaturase 1 118996919 FADS1 fatty acid Sturnira XM_037060570.1 XP_036916465.1 desaturase 1 hondurensis 119043682 FADS1 fatty acid Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037137729.1 XP_036993624.1 desaturase 1 jamaicensis eating bat 119154418 FADS1 fatty acid Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037401869.1 XP_037257766.1 desaturase 1 119250072 FADS1 fatty acid Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037517749.1 XP_037373646.1 desaturase 1 119535814 FADS1 fatty acid Choloepus southern two-toed XM_037838228.1 XP_037694156.1 desaturase 1 didactylus sloth 119701668 FADS1 fatty acid Motacilla alba alba XM_038138679.1 XP_037994607.1 desaturase 1 119813303 Fads1 fatty acid Arvicola amphibius Eurasian water XM_038328551.1 XP_038184479.1 desaturase 1 vole 119943638 FADS1 fatty acid Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038764746.1 XP_038620674.1 desaturase 1 aculeatus 120246150 FADS1 fatty acid Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039253495.1 XP_039109426.1 desaturase 1 120499565 FADS1 fatty acid Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039703416.1 XP_039559350.1 desaturase 1 sparrow 120600651 FADS1 fatty acid Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039860119.1 XP_039716053.1 desaturase 1 120753733 FADS1 fatty acid Hirundo rustica Barn swallow XM_040066402.1 XP_039922336.1 desaturase 1 120874548 FADS1 fatty acid Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040255993.1 XP_040111927.1 desaturase 1 oryx 120917259 FADS1 fatty acid Rana temporaria common frog XM_040328420.1 XP_040184354.1 desaturase 1 120981188 FADS1 fatty acid Bufo bufo common toad XM_040410717.1 XP_040266651.1 desaturase 1 121043898 FADS1 fatty acid Puma yagouaroundi jaguarundi XM_040495883.1 XP_040351817.1 desaturase 1 121070714 FADS1 fatty acid Cygnus olor mute swan XM_040558274.1 XP_040414208.1 desaturase 1 121094618 FADS1 fatty acid Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040608520.1 XP_040464454.1 desaturase 1 121157656 FADS1 fatty acid Ochotona curzoniae black-lipped pika XM_040981994.1 XP_040837928.1 desaturase 1 121339155 FADS1 fatty acid Onychostruthus white-rumped XM_041410755.1 XP_041266689.1 desaturase 1 taczanowskii snowfinch 121354751 FADS1 fatty acid Pyrgilauda rufous-necked XM_041469591.1 XP_041325525.1 desaturase 1 ruficollis snowfinch 121453877 Fads1 fatty acid Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041660877.1 XP_041516811.1 desaturase 1 121472259 FADS1 fatty acid Vulpes lagopus Arctic fox XM_041723496.1 XP_041579430.1 desaturase 1 121661822 FADS1 fatty acid Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042022369.1 XP_041878303.1 desaturase 1

TABLE 24 Exemplary Δ-6 desaturase (FADS2) gene and/or gene products RefSeq Transcript RefSeq Protein Gene ID Gene symbol Description Scientific name Common name accessions accessions 9415 FADS2 fatty acid Homo sapiens human NM_004265.4 NP_004256.1 desaturase 2 56473 Fads2 fatty acid Mus musculus house mouse NM_019699.2 NP_062673.1 desaturase 2 83512 Fads2 fatty acid Rattus norvegicus Norway rat NM_031344.2 NP_112634.1 desaturase 2 140615 fads2 fatty acid Danio rerio zebrafish NM_131645.2 NP_571720.2 desaturase 2 444997 FADS2 fatty acid Sus scrofa pig NM_001171750.1 NP_001165221.1 desaturase 2 451244 FADS2 fatty acid Pan troglodytes chimpanzee NM_001364482.1 NP_001351411.1 desaturase 2 483792 FADS2 fatty acid Canis lupus dog XM_014120904.3 XP_013976379.2 desaturase 2 familiaris 521822 FADS2 fatty acid Bos taurus cattle NM_001083444.1 NP_001076913.1 desaturase 2 719037 FADS2 fatty acid Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_028832863.1 XP_028688696.1 desaturase 2 100062709 FADS2 fatty acid Equus caballus horse XM_023654186.1 XP_023509954.1 desaturase 2 100126749 FADS2 fatty acid Papio anubis olive baboon NM_001145087.1 NP_001138559.1 desaturase 2 100145314 fads2 fatty acid Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed XM_012960613.2 XP_012816067.1 desaturase 2 frog 100190814 FADS2 fatty acid Pongo abelii Sumatran NM_001135502.1 NP_001128974.1 desaturase 2 orangutan 100352712 FADS2 fatty acid Oryctolagus rabbit NM_001329067.1 NP_001315996.1 desaturase 2 cuniculus 100387410 FADS2 fatty acid Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_009008303.3 XP_009006551.2 desaturase 2 marmoset 100470289 FADS2 fatty acid Ailuropoda giant panda XM_002926221.4 XP_002926267.1 desaturase 2 melanoleuca 100596455 FADS2 fatty acid Nomascus northern white- XM_030810928.1 XP_030666788.1 desaturase 2 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100724176 Fads2 fatty acid Cavia porcellus domestic guinea XM_005002002.3 XP_005002059.2 desaturase 2 pig 100757464 Fads2 fatty acid Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_003513181.4 XP_003513229.1 desaturase 2 100930034 FADS2 fatty acid Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_031942019.1 XP_031797879.1 desaturase 2 100953713 FADS2 fatty acid Otolemur garnettii small-eared XM_003798736.3 XP_003798784.1 desaturase 2 galago 100980611 FADS2 fatty acid Pan paniscus pygmy XM_008953880.3 XP_008952128.1 desaturase 2 chimpanzee 101051429 FADS2 fatty acid Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_003920207.3 XP_003920256.1 desaturase 2 monkey 101085071 FADS2 fatty acid Felis catus domestic cat XM_023239925.1 XP_023095693.1 desaturase 2 101108615 FADS2 fatty acid Ovis aries sheep XM_015103138.3 XP_014958624.2 desaturase 2 101156321 fads2 fatty acid Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_020704003.2 XP_020559662.2 desaturase 2 101275563 FADS2 fatty acid Orcinus orca killer whale XM_033414206.1 XP_033270097.1 desaturase 2 101324588 FADS2 fatty acid Tursiops truncatus common XM_033860809.1 XP_033716700.1 desaturase 2 bottlenose dolphin 101347025 LOC101347025 fatty acid Trichechus manatus Florida manatee XM_004383858.3 XP_004383915.1 desaturase 2 latirostris 101364529 FADS2 fatty acid Odobenus rosmarus Pacific walrus XM_004410051.2 XP_004410108.1 desaturase 2 divergens 101395093 LOC101395093 fatty acid Ceratotherium southern white XM_004437465.2 XP_004437522.1 desaturase 2 simum simum rhinoceros 101419118 FADS2 fatty acid Dasypus nine-banded XM_004483043.3 XP_004483100.1 desaturase 2 novemcinctus armadillo 101520480 FADS2 fatty acid Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004599325.3 XP_004599382.1 desaturase 2 101540602 FADS2 fatty acid Sorex araneus European shrew XM_004620836.1 XP_004620893.1 desaturase 2 101564700 Fads2 fatty acid Octodon degus degu XM_004646723.2 XP_004646780.1 desaturase 2 101605073 Fads2 fatty acid Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_004667665.1 XP_004667722.1 desaturase 2 jerboa 101622962 FADS2 fatty acid Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_004682728.2 XP_004682785.1 desaturase 2 101661366 FADS2 fatty acid Echinops telfairi small Madagascar XM_004714937.1 XP_004714994.1 desaturase 2 hedgehog 101675571 FADS2 fatty acid Mustela putorius domestic ferret χM_013044579.1 XP_012900033.1 desaturase 2 furo 101726663 Fads2 fatty acid Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_021251740.1 XP_021107399.1 desaturase 2 glaber 101798758 FADS2 fatty acid Anas platyrhynchos mallard XM_013103963.4 XP_012959417.2 desaturase 2 101844598 Fads2 fatty acid Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_005063853.4 XP_005063910.1 desaturase 2 auratus 101874266 LOC101874266 fatty acid Melopsittacus budgerigar XM_031053581.2 XP_030909441.2 desaturase 2 undulatus 101910606 FADS2 fatty acid Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon χM_013304041.2 XP_013159495.1 desaturase 2 101926688 FADS2 fatty acid Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005577619.2 XP_005577676.1 desaturase 2 macaque 101936434 FADS2 fatty acid Chrysemys picta Painted turtle XM_005289233.3 XP_005289290.1 desaturase 2 101971427 Fads2 fatty acid Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_005331513.4 XP_005331570.1 desaturase 2 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101999761 Fads2 fatty acid Microtus prairie vole XM_005369622.2 XP_005369679.1 desaturase 2 ochrogaster 102020363 Fads2 fatty acid Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_013506432.1 XP_013361886.1 desaturase 2 chinchilla 102058085 FADS2 fatty acid Falco cherrug Saker falcon XM_014279311.2 XP_014134786.1 desaturase 2 102098615 FADS2 fatty acid Columba livia rock pigeon XM_005511040.2 XP_005511097.1 desaturase 2 102112585 FADS2 fatty acid Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground-tit χM_014260416.1 XP_014115891.1 desaturase 2 humilis 102171133 FADS2 fatty acid Capra hircus goat χM_018043056.1 XP_017898545.1 desaturase 2 102213834 fads2 fatty acid Pundamilia XM_005730097.2 XP_005730154.1 desaturase 2 nyererei 102223144 fads2 fatty acid Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_005806955.3 XP_005807012.1 desaturase 2 maculatus 102275533 FADS2 fatty acid Bos mutus wild yak XM_005901285.2 XP_005901347.1 desaturase 2 102405983 FADS2 fatty acid Bubalus bubalis water buffalo NM_001319796.1 NP_001306725.1 desaturase 2 102460236 FADS2 fatty acid Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft- XM_006111744.3 XP_006111806.1 desaturase 2 shelled turtle 102475407 FADS2 fatty acid Tupaia chinensis Chinese tree XM_027768727.1 XP_027624528.1 desaturase 2 shrew 102506325 FADS2 fatty acid Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_006173184.3 XP_006173246.2 desaturase 2 camel 102543923 FADS2 fatty acid Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_031690761.1 XP_031546621.1 desaturase 2 102691516 fads2 fatty acid Lepisosteus spotted gar XM_015338726.1 XP_015194212.1 desaturase 2 oculatus 102773468 FADS2 fatty acid Myotis davidii XM_015569812.1 XP_015425298.1 desaturase 2 102835916 FADS2 fatty acid Chrysochloris Cape golden mole XM_006875002.1 XP_006875064.1 desaturase 2 asiatica 102845261 FADS2 fatty acid Elephantulus Cape elephant XM_006899833.1 XP_006899895.1 desaturase 2 edwardii shrew 102894063 FADS2 fatty acid Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_006911218.3 XP_006911280.1 desaturase 2 102927687 Fads2 fatty acid Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_006993862.2 XP_006993924.1 desaturase 2 maniculatus bairdii 102933275 FADS2 fatty acid Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle XM_037899460.1 XP_037755388.1 desaturase 2 103000252 FADS2 fatty acid Balaenoptera XM_007174478.2 XP_007174540.1 desaturase 2 acutorostrata scammoni 103027972 fads2 fatty acid Astyanax Mexican tetra XM_007235121.3 XP_007235183.2 desaturase 2 mexicanus 103050551 FADS2 fatty acid Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007426541.2 XP_007426603.1 desaturase 2 103083143 FADS2 fatty acid Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007462166.1 XP_007462228.1 desaturase 2 dolphin 103116439 FADS2 fatty acid Erinaceus western European XM_007526330.2 XP_007526392.1 desaturase 2 europaeus hedgehog 103174861 fads2 fatty acid Callorhinchus milii elephant shark XM_007887445.1 XP_007885636.1 desaturase 2 103200511 FADS2 fatty acid Orycteropus afer XM_007945012.1 XP_007943203.1 desaturase 2 afer 103234245 FADS2 fatty acid Chlorocebus green monkey XM_037999217.1 XP_037855145.1 desaturase 2 sabaeus 103269267 FADS2 fatty acid Carlito syrichta Philippine tarsier XM_008066854.2 XP_008065045.1 desaturase 2 103303327 FADS2 fatty acid Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028137511.1 XP_027993312.1 desaturase 2 103371510 fads2 fatty acid Stegastes partitus bicolor damselfish XM_008300860.1 XP_008299082.1 desaturase 2 103380276 fads2 fatty acid Cynoglossus tongue sole XM_008312161.3 XP_008310383.1 desaturase 2 semilaevis 103532527 FADS2 fatty acid Calypte anna Anna's XM_030450968.1 XP_030306828.1 desaturase 2 hummingbird 103567043 FADS2 fatty acid Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008543630.1 XP_008541852.1 desaturase 2 103604810 FADS2 fatty acid Galeopterus Sunda flying XM_008589390.1 XP_008587612.1 desaturase 2 variegatus lemur 103614698 FADS2 fatty acid Corvus American crow XM_017733015.1 XP_017588504.1 desaturase 2 brachyrhynchos 103729125 Fads2 fatty acid Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008827114.3 XP_008825336.1 desaturase 2 mountains blind mole rat 103756377 FADS2 fatty acid Manacus vitellinus golden-collared XM_018081834.2 XP_017937323.1 desaturase 2 manakin 103822123 FADS2 fatty acid Serinus canaria Common canary XM_009097082.3 XP_009095330.1 desaturase 2 103905746 FADS2 fatty acid Aptenodytes emperor penguin XM_009287533.1 XP_009285808.1 desaturase 2 forsteri 103925785 FADS2 fatty acid Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin XM_009334554.1 XP_009332829.1 desaturase 2 104009393 FADS2 fatty acid Nipponia nippon crested ibis XM_009461375.1 XP_009459650.1 desaturase 2 104062412 FADS2 fatty acid Cuculus canorus common cuckoo XM_009564467.1 XP_009562762.1 desaturase 2 104122147 FADS2 fatty acid Egretta garzetta little egret XM_035889895.1 XP_035745788.1 desaturase 2 104139314 FADS2 fatty acid Struthio camelus XM_009667408.1 XP_009665703.1 desaturase 2 australis 104287520 FADS2 fatty acid Charadrius killdeer XM_009886237.1 XP_009884539.1 desaturase 2 vociferus 104304413 FADS2 fatty acid Dryobates Downy XM_009905151.1 XP_009903453.1 desaturase 2 pubescens woodpecker 104339401 FADS2 fatty acid Opisthocomus XM_009945554.1 XP_009943856.1 desaturase 2 hoazin 104369427 FADS2 fatty acid Tyto alba Bam owl XM_033006786.1 XP_032862677.1 desaturase 2 104397494 FADS2 fatty acid Chaetura pelagica chimney swift XM_010007455.1 XP_010005757.1 desaturase 2 104679373 FADS2 fatty acid Rhinopithecus golden snub-nosed XM_010384923.2 XP_010383225.1 desaturase 2 roxellana monkey 104697641 FADS2 fatty acid Corvus cornix XM_039552076.1 XP_039408010.1 desaturase 2 cornix 104829423 FADS2 fatty acid Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010563649.1 XP_010561951.1 desaturase 2 leucocephalus 104868385 Fads2 fatty acid Fukomys Damara mole-rat XM_033756579.1 XP_033612470.1 desaturase 2 damarensis 104937137 fads2 fatty acid Larimichthys large yellow NM_001303363.1 NP_001290292.1 desaturase 2 crocea croaker 104956187 fads2 fatty acid Notothenia black rockcod XM_010783645.1 XP_010781947.1 desaturase 2 coriiceps 104998707 FADS2 fatty acid Bison bison bison XM_010854037.1 XP_010852339.1 desaturase 2 105018065 fads2 fatty acid Esox lucius northern pike XM_029114990.2 XP_028970823.1 desaturase 2 105070113 FADS2 fatty acid Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel XM_010956406.1 XP_010954708.1 desaturase 2 105091525 FADS2 fatty acid Camelus Arabian camel XM_031459473.1 XP_031315333.1 desaturase 2 dromedarius 105297786 FADS2 fatty acid Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011368616.2 XP_011366918.1 desaturase 2 105469424 FADS2 fatty acid Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed XM_011720414.2 XP_011718716.1 desaturase 2 macaque 105512289 FADS2 fatty acid Colobus angolensis XM_011942714.1 XP_011798104.1 desaturase 2 palliatus 105549019 FADS2 fatty acid Mandrillus drill XM_011993342.1 XP_011848732.1 desaturase 2 leucophaeus 105577581 FADS2 fatty acid Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012042107.1 XP_011897497.1 desaturase 2 105718627 FADS2 fatty acid Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012454399.1 XP_012309822.1 desaturase 2 105825053 FADS2 fatty acid Propithecus Coquerel's sifaka XM_012662719.1 XP_012518173.1 desaturase 2 coquereli 105878617 FADS2 fatty acid Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012778263.1 XP_012633717.1 desaturase 2 murinus 105904229 fads2 fatty acid Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_031564643.1 XP_031420503.1 desaturase 2 105995277 Fads2 fatty acid Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo rat XM_013028984.1 XP_012884438.1 desaturase 2 106521190 fads2 fatty acid Austrofundulus XM_014013653.1 XP_013869107.1 desaturase 2 limnaeus 106538426 FADS2 fatty acid Thamnophis sirtalis XM_014052906.1 XP_013908381.1 desaturase 2 106847560 FADS2 fatty acid Equus asinus ass XM_014866880.1 XP_014722366.1 desaturase 2 106854756 FADS2 fatty acid Sturnus vulgaris Common starling XM_014878836.1 XP_014734322.1 desaturase 2 106986967 FADS2 fatty acid Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027045940.1 XP_026901741.1 desaturase 2 107096151 fads2 fatty acid Cyprinodon sheepshead XM_015392668.1 XP_015248154.1 desaturase 2 variegatus minnow 107108854 FADS2 fatty acid Gekko japonicus XM_015409378.1 XP_015264864.1 desaturase 2 107160135 Fads2 fatty acid Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015506790.1 XP_015362276.1 desaturase 2 marmota 107314439 FADS2 fatty acid Coturnix japonica Japanese quail XM_015863639.2 XP_015719125.1 desaturase 2 107501589 FADS2 fatty acid Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016127886.2 XP_015983372.2 desaturase 2 aegyptiacus 107527684 FADS2 fatty acid Miniopterus XM_016200466.1 XP_016055952.1 desaturase 2 natalensis 107561173 fads2 fatty acid Sinocyclocheilus XM_016245549.1 XP_016101035.1 desaturase 2 grahami 107674834 fads2 fatty acid Sinocyclocheilus XM_016468947.1 XP_016324433.1 desaturase 2 anshuiensis 107754339 fads2 fatty acid Sinocyclocheilus XM_016570752.1 XP_016426238.1 desaturase 2 rhinocerous 108286221 FADS2 fatty acid Cebus imitator Panamanian XM_017503840.2 XP_017359329.1 desaturase 2 white-faced capuchin 108407763 FADS2 fatty acid Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_036995856.1 XP_036851751.1 desaturase 2 108432696 fads2 fatty acid Pygocentrus red-bellied XM_017706719.2 XP_017562208.2 desaturase 2 nattereri piranha 108503095 FADS2 fatty acid Lepidothrix blue-crowned XM_017826727.1 XP_017682216.1 desaturase 2 coronata manakin 108533600 FADS2 fatty acid Rhinopithecus bieti black snub-nosed XM_017878418.1 XP_017733907.1 desaturase 2 monkey 108794176 FADS2 fatty acid Nanorana parkeri XM_018565178.1 XP_018420680.1 desaturase 2 108886851 fads2 fatty acid Lates calcarifer barramundi perch XM_018681923.1 XP_018537439.1 desaturase 2 109024898 FADS2 fatty acid Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_031016044.1 XP_030871904.1 desaturase 2 109246554 FADS2 fatty acid Panthera pardus leopard XM_019414633.1 XP_019270178.1 desaturase 2 109295789 FADS2 fatty acid Gavialis gangeticus Gharial XM_019514857.1 XP_019370402.1 desaturase 2 109390019 FADS2 fatty acid Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019655999.1 XP_019511544.1 desaturase 2 armiger 109507604 fads2 fatty acid Hippocampus tiger tail seahorse XM_019857158.1 XP_019712717.1 desaturase 2 comes 109554370 FADS2 fatty acid Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019954811.1 XP_019810370.1 desaturase 2 109623584 fads2 fatty acid Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020078079.1 XP_019933638.1 desaturase 2 olivaceus 109695673 Fads2 fatty acid Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020178327.1 XP_020033916.1 desaturase 2 109937250 fads2 fatty acid Rhincodon typus whale shark XM_020535861.1 XP_020391450.1 desaturase 2 109971244 fads2 fatty acid Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020619373.1 XP_020475029.1 desaturase 2 109982230 fads2 fatty acid Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_020631363.2 XP_020487019.1 desaturase 2 110086191 FADS2 fatty acid Pogona vitticeps central bearded dragon XM_020806983.1 XP_020662642.1 desaturase 2 110167702 fads2 fatty acid Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020933070.1 XP_020788729.1 desaturase 2 pectinirostris mudskipper 110195307 FADS2 fatty acid Phascolarctos koala XM_020967999.1 XP_020823658.1 desaturase 2 cinereus 110285898 Fads2 fatty acid Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021152362.2 XP_021008021.1 desaturase 2 110322460 Fads2 fatty acid Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021199139.2 XP_021054798.1 desaturase 2 110400735 FADS2 fatty acid Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021400876.1 XP_021256551.1 desaturase 2 guineafowl 110484926 FADS2 fatty acid Lonchura striata Bengalese finch XM_021555916.2 XP_021411591.1 desaturase 2 domestica 110548092 Fads2 fatty acid Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021636097.1 XP_021491772.1 desaturase 2 unguiculatus 110576322 FADS2 fatty acid Neomonachus Hawaiian monk XM_021685470.1 XP_021541145.1 desaturase 2 schauinslandi seal 110953745 fads2 fatty acid Acanthochromis spiny chromis XM_022197891.1 XP_022053583.1 desaturase 2 polyacanthus 111149586 LOC111149586 fatty acid Enhydra lutris XM_022506706.1 XP_022362414.1 desaturase 2 kenyoni 111183883 FADS2 fatty acid Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022591789.2 XP_022447497.1 desaturase 2 leucas 111229900 fads2 fatty acid Seriola dumerili greater amberjack XM_022756428.1 XP_022612149.1 desaturase 2 111524318 FADS2 fatty acid Piliocolobus Ugandan red XM_023189475.1 XP_023045243.1 desaturase 2 tephrosceles Colobus 111582148 fads2 fatty acid Amphiprion clown XM_023290680.2 XP_023146448.1 desaturase 2 ocellaris anemonefish 111666947 fads2 fatty acid Seriola lalandi XM_023422477.1 XP_023278245.1 desaturase 2 dorsalis 111846795 fads2 fatty acid Paramormyrops XM_023817378.1 XP_023673146.1 desaturase 2 kingsleyae 112071110 fads2 fatty acid Salvelinus alpinus Arctic char XM_024138583.1 XP_023994351.1 desaturase 2 112105262 FADS2 fatty acid Terrapene carolina Three-toed box XM_024197971.2 XP_024053739.1 desaturase 2 triunguis turtle 112264870 fads2 fatty acid Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024441802.1 XP_024297570.1 desaturase 2 tshawytscha 112317237 FADS2 fatty acid Desmodus rotundus common vampire XM_024574311.1 XP_024430079.1 desaturase 2 bat 112402052 FADS2 fatty acid Neophocaena Yangtze finless porpoise XM_024748575.1 XP_024604343.1 desaturase 2 asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis 112606127 FADS2 fatty acid Theropithecus gelada XM_025356195.1 XP_025211980.1 desaturase 2 gelada 112659414 FADS2 fatty acid Canis lupus dingo dingo XM_025446192.2 XP_025301977.1 desaturase 2 112828984 FADS2 fatty acid Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025878260.1 XP_025734045.1 desaturase 2 112851879 FADS2 fatty acid Puma concolor puma XM_025915333.1 XP_025771118.1 desaturase 2 112911087 FADS2 fatty acid Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_025987459.1 XP_025843244.1 desaturase 2 112948004 FADS2 fatty acid Nothoprocta XM_026040203.1 XP_025895988.1 desaturase 2 perdicaria 112991695 FADS2 fatty acid Dromaius emu XM_026114361.1 XP_025970146.1 desaturase 2 novaehollandiae 113132819 fads2 fatty acid Mastacembelus zig-zag eel XM_026311175.1 XP_026166960.1 desaturase 2 armatus 113165428 fads2 fatty acid Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026364874.1 XP_026220659.1 desaturase 2 113195847 Fads2 fatty acid Urocitellus parryii Arctic ground squirrel XM_026407517.1 XP_026263302.1 desaturase 2 113246983 FADS2 fatty acid Ursus arctos XM_026487771.1 XP_026343556.1 desaturase 2 horribilis 113588191 fads2 fatty acid Electrophorus electric eel XM_027027273.2 XP_026883074.2 desaturase 2 electricus 113611196 FADS2 fatty acid Lagenorhynchus Pacific white-sided dolphin XM_027089820.1 XP_026945621.1 desaturase 2 obliquidens 113886562 FADS2 fatty acid Bos indicus × hybrid cattle XM_027532904.1 XP_027388705.1 desaturase 2 Bostaurus 113914859 FADS2 fatty acid Zalophus California sea lion XM_027580434.2 XP_027436235.1 desaturase 2 californianus 113960647 FADS2 fatty acid Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027670311.1 XP_027526112.1 desaturase 2 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 113991949 FADS2 fatty acid Pipra filicauda Wire-tailed XM_027728727.2 XP_027584528.1 desaturase 2 manakin 114040669 FADS2 fatty acid Vombatus ursinus common wombat XM_027858792.1 XP_027714593.1 desaturase 2 114099688 Fads2 fatty acid Marmota yellow-bellied XM_027944076.2 XP_027799877.1 desaturase 2 flaviventris marmot 114151221 fads2 fatty acid Xiphophorus Monterrey XM_028028305.1 XP_027884106.1 desaturase 2 couchianus platyfish 114220204 FADS2 fatty acid Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028117888.1 XP_027973689.1 desaturase 2 114451863 fads2 fatty acid Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish XM_028430808.1 XP_028286609.1 desaturase 2 114464727 fads2 fatty acid Gouania blunt-snouted XM_028449222.1 XP_028305023.1 desaturase 2 willdenowi clingfish 114487991 FADS2 fatty acid Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_028501165.1 XP_028356966.1 desaturase 2 114499454 FADS2 fatty acid Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed XM_028515644.2 XP_028371445.1 desaturase 2 discolor bat 114629514 Fads2 fatty acid Grammomys XM_028777566.1 XP_028633399.1 desaturase 2 surdaster 114644499 fads2 fatty acid Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028792586.1 XP_028648419.1 desaturase 2 calabaricus 114703436 Fads2 fatty acid Peromyscus white-footed XM_028884283.2 XP_028740116.1 desaturase 2 leucopus mouse 114766737 fads2 fatty acid Denticeps denticle herring XM_028957886.1 XP_028813719.1 desaturase 2 clupeoides 114856803 fads2 fatty acid Betta splendens Siamese fighting XM_029152559.2 XP_029008392.1 desaturase 2 fish 114886728 FADS2 fatty acid Monodon narwhal XM_029207622.1 XP_029063455.1 desaturase 2 monoceros 115010175 fads2 fatty acid Cottoperca gobio XM_029434645.1 XP_029290505.1 desaturase 2 115056938 fads2 fatty acid Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029523743.1 XP_029379603.1 desaturase 2 115306038 FADS2 fatty acid Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029956201.1 XP_029812061.1 desaturase 2 115352166 FADS2 fatty acid Aquila chrysaetos XM_030039894.2 XP_029895754.1 desaturase 2 chrysaetos 115360808 fads2 fatty acid Myripristis murdjan pinecone XM_030053956.1 XP_029909816.1 desaturase 2 soldierfish 115420593 fads2 fatty acid Sphaeramia orbiculate XM_030135956.1 XP_029991816.1 desaturase 2 orbicularis cardinalfish 115468974 FADS2 fatty acid Microcaecilia XM_030201183.1 XP_030057043.1 desaturase 2 unicolor 115524908 FADS2 fatty acid Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030331682.1 XP_030187542.1 desaturase 2 115551190 fads2 fatty acid Gadus morhua Atlantic cod XM_030366783.1 XP_030222643.1 desaturase 2 115586375 fads2 fatty acid Sparus aurata gilthead seabream XM_030425365.1 XP_030281225.1 desaturase 2 115826271 fads2 fatty acid Chanos chanos milkfish XM_030790021.1 XP_030645881.1 desaturase 2 115840660 FADS2 fatty acid Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030833957.1 XP_030689817.1 desaturase 2 whale 116038811 fads2 fatty acid Sander lucioperca pikeperch XM_031283486.2 XP_031139346.2 desaturase 2 116103546 Fads2 fatty acid Mastomys coucha southern XM_031389654.1 XP_031245514.1 desaturase 2 multimammate mouse 116239008 FADS2 fatty acid Phasianus colchicus Ring-necked XM_031608988.1 XP_031464848.1 desaturase 2 pheasant 116390120 fads2 fatty acid Anarrhichthys wolf-eel XM_031859437.1 XP_031715297.1 desaturase 2 ocellatus 116468868 FADS2 fatty acid Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032153058.1 XP_032008949.1 desaturase 2 116489695 FADS2 fatty acid Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032188247.1 XP_032044138.1 desaturase 2 116554914 FADS2 fatty acid Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032283168.1 XP_032139059.1 desaturase 2 116598317 FADS2 fatty acid Mustela erminea ermine XM_032356955.1 XP_032212846.1 desaturase 2 116638368 FADS2 fatty acid Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032414281.1 XP_032270172.1 desaturase 2 116693334 fads2 fatty acid Etheostoma orangethroat XM_032522237.1 XP_032378128.1 desaturase 2 spectabile darter 116729638 fads2 fatty acid Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032578312.1 XP_032434203.1 desaturase 2 hellerii 116757879 FADS2 fatty acid Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032640288.1 XP_032496179.1 desaturase 2 116830902 FADS2 fatty acid Chelonoidis Abingdon island XM_032790577.1 XP_032646468.1 desaturase 2 abingdonii giant tortoise 116880282 FADS2 fatty acid Lontra canadensis Northern XM_032879200.1 XP_032735091.1 desaturase 2 American river otter 116890943 Fads2 fatty acid Rattus rattus black rat XM_032891586.1 XP_032747477.1 desaturase 2 116984726 fads2 fatty acid Amblyraja radiata thorny skate XM_033039057.1 XP_032894948.1 desaturase 2 116998113 FADS2 fatty acid Catharus ustulatus Swainson's thrush XM_033063519.1 XP_032919410.1 desaturase 2 117030358 FADS2 fatty acid Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033120401.1 XP_032976292.1 desaturase 2 ferrumequinum bat 117080261 FADS2 fatty acid Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033205137.1 XP_033061028.1 desaturase 2 francoisi 117352277 FADS2 fatty acid Geotrypetes XM_033928648.1 XP_033784539.1 desaturase 2 seraphini 117707574 Fads2 fatty acid Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034500990.1 XP_034356881.1 desaturase 2 niloticus 117877425 FADS2 fatty acid Trachemys scripta XM_034770540.1 XP_034626431.1 desaturase 2 elegans 118015922 FADS2 fatty acid Mirounga leonina Southern elephant XM_035012986.1 XP_034868877.1 desaturase 2 seal 118167420 FADS2 fatty acid Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck XM_035326767.1 XP_035182658.1 desaturase 2 118249734 FADS2 fatty acid Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035549983.1 XP_035405876.1 desaturase 2 118554573 FADS2 fatty acid Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036122281.1 XP_035978174.1 desaturase 2 118594821 Fads2 fatty acid Onychomys southern XM_036205028.1 XP_036060921.1 desaturase 2 torridus grasshopper mouse 118627539 FADS2 fatty acid Molossus molossus Pallas's mastiff bat XM_036257756.1 XP_036113649.1 desaturase 2 118649000 FADS2 fatty acid Myotis myotis XM_036295664.1 XP_036151557.1 desaturase 2 118707198 FADS2 fatty acid Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036417211.1 XP_036273104.1 desaturase 2 118853378 FADS2 fatty acid Trichosurus common brushtail XM_036763401.1 XP_036619296.1 desaturase 2 vulpecula 118899178 FADS2 fatty acid Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036860449.1 XP_036716344.1 desaturase 2 musculus 118932203 FADS2 fatty acid Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036925486.1 XP_036781381.1 desaturase 2 118996917 FADS2 fatty acid Sturnira XM_037060568.1 XP_036916463.1 desaturase 2 hondurensis 119043681 FADS2 fatty acid Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037137727.1 XP_036993622.1 desaturase 2 jamaicensis eating bat 119154417 FADS2 fatty acid Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037401868.1 XP_037257765.1 desaturase 2 119250071 FADS2 fatty acid Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037517748.1 XP_037373645.1 desaturase 2 119416318 fads2 fatty acid Nematolebias Rio pearlfish XM_037683547.1 XP_037539475.1 desaturase 2 whitei 119535813 FADS2 fatty acid Choloepus southern two-toed XM_037838227.1 XP_037694155.1 desaturase 2 didactylus sloth 119701670 FADS2 fatty acid Motacilla alba alba XM_038138686.1 XP_037994614.1 desaturase 2 119814598 Fads2 fatty acid Arvicola amphibius Eurasian water XM_038330482.1 XP_038186410.1 desaturase 2 vole 119943637 FADS2 fatty acid Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038764745.1 XP_038620673.1 desaturase 2 aculeatus 120246152 FADS2 fatty acid Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039253499.1 XP_039109430.1 desaturase 2 120499564 FADS2 fatty acid Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039703413.1 XP_039559347.1 desaturase 2 sparrow 120600650 FADS2 fatty acid Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039860117.1 XP_039716051.1 desaturase 2 120874547 FADS2 fatty acid Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040255992.1 XP_040111926.1 desaturase 2 oryx 120917257 FADS2 fatty acid Rana temporaria common frog XM_040328418.1 XP_040184352.1 desaturase 2 120981189 FADS2 fatty acid Bufo bufo common toad XM_040410718.1 XP_040266652.1 desaturase 2 121043312 FADS2 fatty acid Puma yagouaroundi jaguarundi XM_040494920.1 XP_040350854.1 desaturase 2 121070715 FADS2 fatty acid Cygnus olor mute swan XM_040558277.1 XP_040414211.1 desaturase 2 121094617 FADS2 fatty acid Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040608518.1 XP_040464452.1 desaturase 2 121157655 FADS2 fatty acid Ochotona curzoniae black-lipped pika XM_040981991.1 XP_040837925.1 desaturase 2 121339150 FADS2 fatty acid Onychostruthus white-rumped XM_041410744.1 XP_041266678.1 desaturase 2 taczanowskii snowfinch 121354750 FADS2 fatty acid Pyrgilauda rufous-necked XM_041469589.1 XP_041325523.1 desaturase 2 ruficollis snowfinch 121453878 Fads2 fatty acid Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041660879.1 XP_041516813.1 desaturase 2 121472257 FADS2 fatty acid Vulpes lagopus Arctic fox XM_041723493.1 XP_041579427.1 desaturase 2 121661821 FADS2 fatty acid Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042022366.1 XP_041878300.1 desaturase 2

In some embodiments, the exogenous gene and/or gene product is a cercopin gene or gene product or a derivative or variant thereof. Cercropins are antimicrobial peptides (see e.g., Lauwers et al., 2009. J. Biol. Chem. 284(13):8973-8983; Liang Y, et al. Dev Comp Immunol, 2006. PMID 15982736; Plunkett RM, et al. Can J Microbiol, 2009 May. PMID 19483780; . Loch G, et al. PLoS One, 2017. PMID 28520752; Boulanger N, et al. J Biol Chem, 2002 Dec 20. PMID 12372834; Tryselius Y, et al. Eur J Biochem, 1992 Feb 15. PMID 1740152; Okasha H, et al. Curr Pharm Biotechnol, 2021. PMID 33397234; Ekengren S, et al. Insect Biochem Mol Biol, 1999 Nov. PMID 10560137; Lee J.-Y., Boman A., Sun C. X., Andersson M., Jörnvall H., Mutt V., Boman H. G. Antibacterial peptides from pig intestine: isolation of a mammalian cecropin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1989;86:9159-9162, and Pillai et al., 2005. Biochem. J. 390(Pt 1):207-214). Crecropins can enhance bacterial disease resistance in catfish. See e.g., Dunham et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 Jun;4(3):338-44 and Simora et al., J Aquat Anim Health. 2021 Sep;33(3):178-189. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene or gene product is cecropin Al or cecropin A2. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene or gene product is cecropin B. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene or gene product is cecropin P1, P2, P3, or P4. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene or gene product is Papiliocin. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene is CecC. In some embodiments, the cercropin gene is CECD. Exemplary Cercropin genes and gene products are shown in Table 25. In some embodiments, the cecropin is propeptide, the exogenous gene can include sequences encoding the secretory signal peptide and/or pro-regions.

TABLE 25 Exemplary Cecropin genes and/or gene products. RefSeq Transcript Gene Gene Scientific Common accessions or RefSeq Protein accessions or ID symbol Description name name sequence sequence 43596 CecA1 Cercropin Drosophila Fruit fly NM_079849.4 NP_524588.1 A1 melanogaster 43957 CecA2 Cercropin Drosophila Fruit fly NM_079850.4 NP_524589.1 A2 melanogaster 43598 CecB Cecropin B Drosophila Fruit fly NM_079851.3 NP_524590.1 melanogaster CecB Cecropin B H. cecropia Moth M10309.1 AAA29184.1 Cercropin Ascaris suum Pig SWLSKTAKKLENSAKKRISEGIAIAIQGGPR P1 intestinal (SEQ ID NO: 31) nematode Cercropin SWLSKTYKKLENSAKKRISEGIAIAIQGGPR P2 (SEQ ID NO: 32) (mature peptide sequence) Cercropin SWLSKTYKKLENSAKKRISEGIAIAIKGGSR P3 (SEQ ID NO: 33) (mature peptide sequence) Cercropin SWLSKTYKKLENSAKKRISEGIAIAILGGLR P4 (SEQ ID NO: 34) (mature peptide sequence) 43599 CecC Cercropin C Drosophila Fruit fly NM_079852.3 NP_524591.1 melanogaster 692369 CecD Cercropin D Bombyx mori Domestic NM_001043368.2 NP_001036866.1 silkworm

Cathelicidin can enhance protection of catfish against infectious organisms such as Edwarsiell ictalurid. See e.g., Simora et al., J Fish Dis. 2020 Dec;43(12):1553-1562. In some embodiments, the exogenous gene and/or gene product is a cathelicidin gene and/or gene product. Exemplary cathelicidin genes and gene products are shown in Table 26.

TABLE 26 Exemplary cathelicidin genes and gene products. RefSeq Transcript RefSeq Protein Gene ID Gene symbol Description Scientific name Common name accessions accessions 820 CAMP cathelicidin Homo sapiens human NM_004345.5 NP_004336.4 antimicrobial peptide 12796 Camp cathelicidin Mus musculus house mouse NM_009921.2 NP_034051.2 antimicrobial peptide 316010 Camp cathelicidin Rattus norvegicus Norway rat NM001100724.1 NP001094194.1 antimicrobial peptide 442947 CAMP cathelicidin Canis lupus dog NM_001003359.1 NP_001003359.1 antimicrobial familiaris peptide 619186 CAMP cathelicidin Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey NM_001033509.2 NP_001028681.1 antimicrobial peptide 741881 CAMP cathelicidin Pan troglodytes chimpanzee NM_001071815.1 NP_001065283.1 antimicrobial peptide 100009142 CAMP cathelicidin Oryctolagus rabbit XM_008260452.2 XP_008258674.1 antimicrobial cuniculus peptide 100409435 CAMP cathelicidin Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_035275359.1 XP_035131250.1 antimicrobial marmoset peptide 100458748 CAMP cathelicidin Pongo abelii Sumatran XM_002813799.4 XP_002813845.2 antimicrobial orangutan peptide 100476997 CAMP cathelicidin Ailuropoda giant panda XM_002926030.4 XP_002926076.1 antimicrobial melanoleuca peptide 100533978 CAMP cathelicidin Felis catus domestic cat NM_001204778.1 NP_001191707.1 antimicrobial peptide 100588557 CAMP cathelicidin Nomascus northern white- XM_003257003.4 XP_003257051.2 antimicrobial leucogenys cheeked gibbon peptide 100653643 CAMP cathelicidin Loxodonta African savanna XM_003409891.2 XP_003409939.1 antimicrobial africana elephant peptide 100767672 Camp cathelicidin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035443984.1 XP_035299875.1 antimicrobial peptide 100924204 CAMP cathelicidin Sarcophilus Tasmanian devil XM_023498557.2 XP_023354325.1 antimicrobial harrisii peptide 100943189 CAMP cathelicidin Otolemur garnettii small-eared XM_012811886.1 XP_012667340.1 antimicrobial galago peptide 100985563 CAMP cathelicidin Pan paniscus pygmy XM_003818426.3 XP_003818474.1 antimicrobial chimpanzee peptide 101017082 CAMP cathelicidin Papio anubis olive baboon XM_003894490.3 XP_003894539.2 antimicrobial peptide 101039558 LOC101039558 cathelicidin Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_003926293.3 XP_003926342.1 antimicrobial monkey peptide 101141595 CAMP cathelicidin Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_004034062.3 XP_004034110.1 antimicrobial peptide 101370308 CAMP cathelicidin Odobenus Pacific walrus XM_004399186.2 XP_004399243.1 antimicrobial rosmarus peptide divergens 101389167 LOC101389167 cathelicidin Ceratotherium southern white XM_004419642.2 XP_004419699.1 antimicrobial simum simum rhinoceros peptide 101532199 LOC101532199 cathelicidin Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004581739.2 XP_004581796.1 antimicrobial peptide 101541277 CAMP cathelicidin Sorex araneus European shrew XM_004615147.1 XP_004615204.1 antimicrobial peptide 101583314 Camp cathelicidin Octodon degus degu XM_004640784.2 XP_004640841.1 antimicrobial peptide 101617713 Camp cathelicidin Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_004661953.2 XP_004662010.1 antimicrobial jerboa peptide 101621468 CAMP cathelicidin Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_012735223.1 XP_012590677.1 antimicrobial peptide 101641205 CAMP cathelicidin Echinops telfairi small Madagascar XM_013004997.1 XP_012860451.1 antimicrobial hedgehog peptide 101677996 CAMP cathelicidin Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_013060760.1 XP_012916214.1 antimicrobial furo peptide 101698769 Camp cathelicidin Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004834939.3 XP_004834996.1 antimicrobial glaber peptide 101731161 camp cathelicidin Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed XM_004915510.4 XP_004915567.1 antimicrobial frog peptide 101829350 LOC101829350 cathelicidin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_005075080.4 XP_005075137.1 antimicrobial auratus peptide 101914489 CAMP cathelicidin Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_005229571.2 XP_005229628.1 antimicrobial peptide 102002439 Camp cathelicidin Microtus prairie vole XM_005347967.2 XP_005348024.1 antimicrobial ochrogaster peptide 102014676 Camp cathelicidin Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_005383402.2 XP_005383459.1 antimicrobial chinchilla peptide 102053768 CAMP cathelicidin Falco cherrug Saker falcon XM_005442412.2 XP_005442469.1 antimicrobial peptide 102098555 CAMP cathelicidin Columba livia rock pigeon XM_005512142.2 XP_005512199.1 antimicrobial peptide 102105831 CAMP cathelicidin Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground- XM_005532140.2 XP_005532197.1 antimicrobial humilis tit peptide 102139204 CAMP cathelicidin Macaca crab-eating XM_005547003.2 XP_005547060.1 antimicrobial fascicularis macaque peptide 102261369 CAMP cathelicidin Myotis brandtii Brandt's bat XM_014540508.1 XP_014395994.1 antimicrobial peptide 102742380 CAMP cathelicidin Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006732991.2 XP_006733054.1 antimicrobial weddellii peptide 102771171 CAMP cathelicidin Myotis davidii XM_006770430.2 XP_006770493.1 antimicrobial peptide 102817414 CAMP cathelicidin Chrysochloris Cape golden XM_006868787.1 XP_006868849.1 antimicrobial asiatica mole peptide 102867055 CAMP cathelicidin Elephantulus Cape elephant XM_006893030.1 XP_006893092.1 antimicrobial edwardii shrew peptide 102884331 CAMP cathelicidin Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_006914918.3 XP_006914980.3 antimicrobial peptide 102906537 LOC102906537 cathelicidin Peromyscus prairie deer XM_006985875.2 XP_006985937.2 antimicrobial maniculatus bairdii mouse peptide 102960275 CAMP cathelicidin Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_007088448.2 XP_007088510.1 antimicrobial altaica peptide 103122990 CAMP cathelicidin Erinaceus western European XM_007533605.2 XP_007533667.2 antimicrobial europaeus hedgehog peptide 103227575 LOC103227575 cathelicidin Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007984093.2 XP_007982284.1 antimicrobial sabaeus peptide 103251010 CAMP cathelicidin Carlito syrichta Philippine tarsier XM_008049604.2 XP_008047795.1 antimicrobial peptide 103299036 CAMP cathelicidin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_008155908.2 XP_008154130.1 antimicrobial peptide 103591601 CAMP cathelicidin Galeopterus Sunda flying XM_008574075.1 XP_008572297.1 antimicrobial variegatus lemur peptide 103674860 LOC103674860 cathelicidin Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_008703850.2 XP_008702072.1 antimicrobial peptide 103801688 CAMP cathelicidin Acanthisitta rifleman XM_009074112.1 XP_009072360.1 antimicrobial chloris peptide 103812672 CAMP cathelicidin Serinus canaria Common canary XM_009085744.3 XP_009083992.2 antimicrobial peptide 104289686 CAMP cathelicidin Charadrius killdeer XM_009888674.1 XP_009886976.1 antimicrobial vociferus peptide 104409398 CAMP cathelicidin Nestor notabilis Kea XM_010019251.1 XP_010017553.1 antimicrobial peptide 104671298 CAMP cathelicidin Rhinopithecus golden snub- XM_010374719.2 XP_010373021.2 antimicrobial roxellana nosed monkey peptide 104828306 CAMP cathelicidin Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010561930.1 XP_010560232.1 antimicrobial leucocephalus peptide 105302406 CAMP cathelicidin Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011375446.2 XP_011373748.1 antimicrobial peptide 105480395 CAMP cathelicidin Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed XM_011739190.1 XP_011737492.1 antimicrobial macaque peptide 105509745 CAMP cathelicidin Colobus XM_011939188.1 XP_011794578.1 antimicrobial angolensis peptide palliatus 105540398 CAMP cathelicidin Mandrillus drill XM_011981014.1 XP_011836404.1 antimicrobial leucophaeus peptide 105573643 CAMP cathelicidin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012033522.1 XP_011888912.1 antimicrobial peptide 105731890 CAMP cathelicidin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night XM_012473812.1 XP_012329235.1 antimicrobial monkey peptide 105816226 CAMP cathelicidin Propithecus Coquerel's sifaka XM_012651620.1 XP_012507074.1 antimicrobial coquereli peptide 105874914 CAMP cathelicidin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012771138.2 XP_012626592.1 antimicrobial murinus peptide 105994613 Camp cathelicidin Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo XM_013028231.1 XP_012883685.1 antimicrobial rat peptide 106862795 CAMP cathelicidin Sturnus vulgaris Common starling XM_014892011.1 XP_014747497.1 antimicrobial peptide 106895835 CAMP cathelicidin Calidris pugnax ruff XM_014955479.1 XP_014810965.1 antimicrobial peptide 106979177 CAMP cathelicidin Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027038616.1 XP_026894417.1 antimicrobial peptide 107198784 CAMP cathelicidin Pares major Great Tit XM_015615997.3 XP_015471483.1 antimicrobial peptide 107513294 LOC107513294 cathelicidin Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_036219680.1 XP_036075573.1 antimicrobial aegyptiacus peptide 107529421 CAMP cathelicidin Miniopteres XM_016202809.1 XP_016058295.1 antimicrobial natalensis peptide 107604613 CAMP cathelicidin Ficedula albicollis Collared XM_016306185.1 XP_016161671.1 antimicrobial flycatcher peptide 108294082 LOC108294082 cathelicidin Cebus imitator Panamanian XM_017515861.1 XP_017371350.1 antimicrobial white-faced peptide capuchin 108402645 LOC108402645 cathelicidin Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017669314.2 XP_017524803.2 antimicrobial peptide 108508214 CAMP cathelicidin Lepidothrix blue-crowned XM_017836834.1 XP_017692323.1 antimicrobial coronata manakin peptide 108517622 CAMP cathelicidin Rhinopithecus black snub-nosed XM_017855649.1 XP_017711138.1 antimicrobial bieti monkey peptide 109247748 CAMP cathelicidin Panthera pardus leopard XM_019416664.1 XP_019272209.1 antimicrobial peptide 109375616 CAMP cathelicidin Hipposideros great roundleaf XM_019631070.1 XP_019486615.1 antimicrobial armiger bat peptide 109699008 Camp cathelicidin Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020183496.1 XP_020039085.1 antimicrobial peptide 110302518 Camp cathelicidin Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021173305.1 XP_021028964.1 antimicrobial peptide 110328557 Camp cathelicidin Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021207978.1 XP_021063637.1 antimicrobial peptide 110390676 CAMP cathelicidin Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021382086.1 XP_021237761.1 antimicrobial guineafowl peptide 110476933 CAMP cathelicidin Lonchura striata Bengalese finch XM_021542233.1 XP_021397908.1 antimicrobial domestica peptide 110564535 Camp cathelicidin Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021662017.1 XP_021517692.1 antimicrobial unguiculatus peptide 110577659 CAMP cathelicidin Neomonachus Hawaiian monk XM_021687057.1 XP_021542732.1 antimicrobial schauinslandi seal peptide 111144247 LOCI 11144247 cathelicidin Enhydra lutris XM_022498466.1 XP_022354174.1 antimicrobial kenyoni peptide 111174439 CAMP cathelicidin Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022573274.2 XP_022428982.1 antimicrobial leucas peptide 111555562 CAMP cathelicidin Piliocolobus Ugandan red XM_023231747.1 XP_023087515.1 antimicrobial tephrosceles Colobus peptide 112309821 CAMP cathelicidin Desmodus common vampire XM_024566029.1 XP_024421797.1 antimicrobial rotundus bat peptide 112618660 CAMP cathelicidin Theropithecus gelada XM_025375964.1 XP_025231749.1 antimicrobial gelada peptide 112665735 LOC112665735 cathelicidin Canis lupus dingo dingo XM_025455716.2 XP_025311501.1 antimicrobial peptide 112834214 CAMP cathelicidin Callorhinus northern fur seal XM_025885675.1 XP_025741460.1 antimicrobial ursinus peptide 112852707 CAMP cathelicidin Puma concolor puma XM_025916237.1 XP_025772022.1 antimicrobial peptide 112913251 CAMP cathelicidin Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_025989838.1 XP_025845623.1 antimicrobial peptide 112951549 CAMP cathelicidin Nothoprocta XM_026044257.1 XP_025900042.1 antimicrobial perdicaria peptide 113256532 CAMP cathelicidin Ursus arctos XM_026500358.1 XP_026356143.1 antimicrobial horribilis peptide 113476776 CAMP cathelicidin Athene cunicularia burrowing owl XM_026842699.1 XP_026698500.1 antimicrobial peptide 113615812 CAMP cathelicidin Lagenorhynchus Pacific white- XM_027098652.1 XP_026954453.1 antimicrobial obliquidens sided dolphin peptide 113917623 LOC113917623 cathelicidin Zalophus California sea XM_027585515.1 XP_027441316.1 antimicrobial californianus lion peptide 113960437 CAMP cathelicidin Corapipo altera White-ruffed XM_027670011.1 XP_027525812.1 antimicrobial manakin peptide 113977478 CAMP cathelicidin Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027703612.1 XP_027559413.1 antimicrobial chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin peptide 113992643 LOCI 13992643 cathelicidin Pipra filicauda Wire-tailed XM_027730130.2 XP_027585931.2 antimicrobial manakin peptide 114070397 CAMP cathelicidin Empidonax traillii willow flycatcher XM_027907759.1 XP_027763560.1 antimicrobial peptide 114224947 CAMP cathelicidin Eumetopias Steller sea lion XM_028124238.1 XP_027980039.1 antimicrobial jubatus peptide 114501854 LOC114501854 cathelicidin Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed XM_028518614.2 XP_028374415.1 antimicrobial discolor bat peptide 114705253 LOC114705253 cathelicidin Peromyscus white-footed XM_028887051.2 XP_028742884.1 antimicrobial leucopus mouse peptide 115275000 CAMP cathelicidin Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029918581.1 XP_029774441.1 antimicrobial peptide 115339568 LOC115339568 cathelicidin Aquila chrysaetos XM_030009733.1 XP_029865593.1 antimicrobial chrysaetos peptide 115493593 LOC115493593 cathelicidin Taeniopygia zebra finch XM_030264102.3 XP_030119962.3 antimicrobial guttata peptide 115508217 LOC115508217 cathelicidin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030306648.1 XP_030162508.1 antimicrobial peptide 115917446 CAMP cathelicidin Camarhynchus XM_030971500.1 XP_030827360.1 antimicrobial parvulus peptide 116072925 Camp cathelicidin Mastomys coucha southern XM_031344517.1 XP_031200377.1 antimicrobial multimammate peptide mouse 116453123 CAMP cathelicidin Corvus New Caledonian XM_032128280.1 XP_031984171.1 antimicrobial moneduloides crow peptide 116472331 CAMP cathelicidin Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032159121.1 XP_032015012.1 antimicrobial peptide 116564681 CAMP cathelicidin Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032297901.1 XP_032153792.1 antimicrobial peptide 116576346 CAMP cathelicidin Mustela erminea ermine XM_032318507.1 XP_032174398.1 antimicrobial peptide 116637238 CAMP cathelicidin Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032412657.1 XP_032268548.1 antimicrobial peptide 116762344 CAMP cathelicidin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032649205.1 XP_032505096.1 antimicrobial peptide 116786372 CAMP cathelicidin Chiroxiphia lance-tailed XM_032686906.1 XP_032542797.1 antimicrobial lanceolata manakin peptide 116873828 CAMP cathelicidin Lontra canadensis Northern XM_032867939.1 XP_032723830.1 antimicrobial American river peptide otter 116907646 Camp cathelicidin Rattus rattus black rat XM_032910715.1 XP_032766606.1 antimicrobial peptide 117036976 CAMP cathelicidin Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033132622.1 XP_032988513.1 antimicrobial ferrumequinum bat peptide 117080792 CAMP cathelicidin Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033206082.1 XP_033061973.1 antimicrobial francoisi peptide 117355613 CAMP cathelicidin Geotrypetes XM_033934439.1 XP_033790330.1 antimicrobial seraphini peptide 118005110 CAMP cathelicidin Mirounga leonina Southern elephant XM_034996847.1 XP_034852738.1 antimicrobial seal peptide 118157009 CAMP cathelicidin Oxyura ruddy duck XM_O35311264.1 XP_035167155.1 antimicrobial jamaicensis peptide 118251813 CAMP cathelicidin Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035554387.1 XP_035410280.1 antimicrobial peptide 118520648 LOCI 18520648 cathelicidin Halichoerus gray seal XM_036068756.1 XP_035924649.1 antimicrobial grypus peptide 118587742 LOCI 18587742 cathelicidin Onychomys southern XM_036193790.1 XP_036049683.1 antimicrobial torridus grasshopper peptide mouse 118633461 LOC118633461 cathelicidin Molossus Pallas's mastiff XM_036267411.1 XP_036123304.1 antimicrobial molossus bat peptide 118668521 LOCI 18668521 cathelicidin Myotis myotis XM_036333676.1 XP_036189569.1 antimicrobial peptide 118684405 LOCI 18684405 cathelicidin Molothrus ater XM_036379239.1 XP_036235132.1 antimicrobial peptide 118715792 LOC118715792 cathelicidin Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036432411.1 XP_036288304.1 antimicrobial peptide 118908621 LOCI 18908621 cathelicidin Manis Chinese pangolin XM_036878390.1 XP_036734285.1 antimicrobial pentadactyla peptide 118989523 LOC118989523 cathelicidin Sturnira XM_037049832.1 XP_036905727.1 antimicrobial hondurensis peptide 119036638 LOC119036638 cathelicidin Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037128524.1 XP_036984419.1 antimicrobial jamaicensis eating bat peptide 119259496 LOC119259496 cathelicidin Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037528412.1 XP_037384309.1 antimicrobial peptide 119697434 LOC119697434 cathelicidin Motacilla alba alba XM_038128210.1 XP_037984138.1 antimicrobial peptide 119810851 LOC119810851 cathelicidin Arvicola Eurasian water XM_038324527.1 XP_038180455.1 antimicrobial amphibius vole peptide 120229326 LOC120229326 cathelicidin Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039228265.1 XP_039084196.1 antimicrobial peptide 120409827 LOC120409827 cathelicidin Corvus cornix XM_039550210.1 XP_039406144.1 antimicrobial cornix peptide 120510575 LOC120510575 cathelicidin Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039726515.1 XP_039582449.1 antimicrobial sparrow peptide 120582302 LOC120582302 cathelicidin Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039837646.1 XP_039693580.1 antimicrobial peptide 120757408 LOC120757408 cathelicidin Hirundo rustica Bam swallow XM_040074721.1 XP_039930655.1 antimicrobial peptide 121011151 LOC121011151 cathelicidin Puma jaguarundi XM_040445238.1 XP_040301172.1 antimicrobial yagouaroundi peptide 121064890 LOC121064890 cathelicidin Cygnus olor mute swan XM_040547111.1 XP_040403045.1 antimicrobial peptide 121087913 LOC121087913 cathelicidin Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040593443.1 XP_040449377.1 antimicrobial peptide 121165969 LOC121165969 cathelicidin Ochotona black-lipped pika XM_040994990.1 XP_040850924.1 antimicrobial curzoniae peptide 121338000 LOC121338000 cathelicidin Onychostruthus white-rumped XM_041408527.1 XP_041264461.1 antimicrobial taczanowskii snowfinch peptide 121351806 LOC121351806 cathelicidin Pyrgilauda rufous-necked XM_041464176.1 XP_041320110.1 antimicrobial ruficollis snowfinch peptide 121464146 LOC121464146 cathelicidin Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041676751.1 XP_041532685.1 antimicrobial peptide 121495894 LOC121495894 cathelicidin Vulpes lagopus Arctic fox XM_041763963.1 XP_041619897.1 antimicrobial peptide 121661784 LOC121661784 cathelicidin Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042022310.1 XP_041878244.1 antimicrobial peptide

In some embodiments, the exogenous gene is a growth hormone gene and/or gene product. Exemplary growth hormone gene and/or gene products are shown in Table 27.

TABLE 27 Exemplary GH gene and/or gene products. RefSeq Transcript RefSeq Protein Gene ID Gene symbol Description Scientific name Common name accessions accessions 2688 GH1 growth Homo sapiens human NM_000515.5 NP_000506.2 hormone 1 407639 GH1 growth Danio rerio zebrafish NM_001020492.2 NP_001018328.2 hormone 1 LOC100136588 GH Growth Salmo salar Atlantic salmon NM_001123676.1 NP_001117148.1 hormone prepeptide 14599 Gh growth Mus musculus house mouse NM_008117.3 NP_032143.1 hormone 280804 GH1 growth Bos taurus cattle XM_005220810.3 XP_005220867.2 hormone 1 454774 GH1 growth Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_024350096.1 XP_024205864.1 hormone 1 718156 GH1 growth Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015120065.2 XP_014975551.2 hormone 1 100126758 GH1 growth Papio anubis olive baboon NM_001290304.1 NP_001277233.1 hormone 1 100379559 Gh1 growth Cavia porcellus domestic guinea NM_001172859.1 NP_001166330.1 hormone 1 Pig 100392546 GH1 growth Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_035297845.1 XP_035153736.1 hormone 1 marmoset 100448861 GH1 growth Pongo abelii Sumatran XM_009251912.2 XP_009250187.1 hormone 1 orangutan 100770534 Gh1 growth Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035448159.1 XP_035304050.1 hormone 1 101039453 GH1 growth Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel NM_001279978.1 NP_001266907.1 hormone 1 monkey 101124194 GH1 growth Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_031011112.1 XP_030866972.1 hormone 1 101393384 LOC101393384 growth Ceratotherium southern white XM_004432654.2 XP_004432711.1 hormone 1 simum simum rhinoceros 101530491 GH1 growth Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004597248.1 XP_004597305.1 hormone 1 101878541 LOC101878541 growth Melopsittacus budgerigar XM_005140292.2 XP_005140349.2 hormone 1 undulatus 101911583 GH1 growth Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_005238817.1 XP_005238874.1 hormone 1 101981176 Gh1 growth Microtus prairie vole XM_026780072.1 XP_026635873.1 hormone 1 ochrogaster 102050341 GH1 growth Falco cherrug Saker falcon XM_005439430.1 XP_005439487.1 hormone 1 102387497 GH1 growth Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator XM_014516984.1 XP_014372470.1 hormone 1 102841515 GH1 growth Chrysochloris Cape golden XM_006833578.1 XP_006833641.1 hormone 1 asiatica mole 102870522 GH1 growth Elephantulus Cape elephant XM_006886410.1 XP_006886472.1 hormone 1 edwardii shrew 103077460 GH1 growth Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007456768.1 XP_007456830.1 hormone 1 dolphin 103117600 GH1 growth Erinaceus western NM_001323333.1 NP_001310262.1 hormone 1 europaeus European hedgehog 103250786 GH1 growth Carlito syrichta Philippine tarsier XM_008049375.1 XP_008047566.1 hormone 1 103536457 GH1 growth Calypte anna Anna's XM_008502621.2 XP_008500843.1 hormone 1 hummingbird 103595645 GH1 growth Galeopterus Sunda flying XM_008579089.1 XP_008577311.1 hormone 1 variegatus lemur 103766621 GH1 growth Manacus vitellinus golden-collared XM_008933674.3 XP_008931922.1 hormone 1 manakin 104857066 Gh1 growth Fukomys Damara mole-rat XM_010616749.2 XP_010615051.1 hormone 1 damarensis 105468988 GH1 growth Macaca pig-tailed χM_011719479.2 XP_011717781.1 hormone 1 nemestrina macaque 107114953 GH1 growth Gekko japonicus XM_015416561.1 XP_015272047.1 hormone 1 107215237 GH1 growth Pares major Great Tit XM_015651253.1 XP_015506739.1 hormone 1 108295581 GH1 growth Cebus imitator Panamanian XM_037734652.1 XP_037590580.1 hormone 1 white-faced capuchin 109700526 Gh1 growth Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020185726.1 XP_020041315.1 hormone 1 110305672 Gh1 growth Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021177735.1 XP_021033394.1 hormone 1 110332223 Gh1 growth Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021213324.1 XP_021068983.1 hormone 1 110479562 GH1 growth Lonchura striata Bengalese finch XM_021546944.1 XP_021402619.1 hormone 1 domestica 112110158 GH1 growth Terrapene carolina Three-toed box XM_024205023.3 XP_024060791.2 hormone 1 triunguis turtle 113976494 GH1 growth Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027701722.1 XP_027557523.1 hormone 1 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 114070629 GH1 growth Empidonax traillii willow XM_027908151.1 XP_027763952.1 hormone 1 flycatcher 114582042 GH1 growth Podarcis muralis Common wall XM_028702812.1 XP_028558645.1 hormone 1 lizard 114815005 GH1 growth Omithorhynchus platypus XM_029074725.1 XP_028930558.1 hormone 1 anatinus 114889157 GH1 growth Monodon narwhal XM_029212141.1 XP_029067974.1 hormone 1 monoceros 115617777 GH1 growth Strigops Kakapo XM_030508656.1 XP_030364516.1 hormone 1 habroptila 116798838 GH1 growth Chiroxiphia lance-tailed XM_032711495.1 XP_032567386.1 hormone 1 lanceolata manakin 117347125 GH1 growth Geotrypetes XM_033917555.1 XP_033773446.1 hormone 1 seraphini 117869418 GH1 growth Trachemys scripta XM_034756256.1 XP_034612147.1 hormone 1 elegans 118094575 GH1 growth Zootoca vivipara common lizard XM_035135100.1 XP_034990991.1 hormone 1 119158776 GH1 growth Falco resticolus gyrfalcon XM_037411105.1 XP_037267002.1 hormone 1 119514791 GH1 growth Choloepus southern two- XM_037810516.1 XP_037666444.1 hormone 1 didactylus toed sloth 119849035 GH1 growth Dermochelys leatherback sea XM_038385617.1 XP_038241545.1 hormone 1 coriacea turtle 119934712 GH1 growth Tachyglossus Australian XM_038754265.1 XP_038610193.1 hormone 1 aculeatus echidna 120384947 GH1 growth Mauremys Reeves's turtle XM_039504049.1 XP_039359983.1 hormone 1 reevesii 120766129 GH1 growth Hirundo rustica Bam swallow XM_040091494.1 XP_039947428.1 hormone 1 121098858 GH1 growth Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040617310.1 XP_040473244.1 hormone 1 121333015 GH1 growth Onychostruthus white-rumped XM_041399030.1 XP_041254964.1 hormone 1 taczanowskii snowfinch 407639 gh1 growth Danio rerio zebrafish NM_001020492.2 NP_001018328.2 hormone 1 100136733 gh1 growth Oncorhynchus rainbow trout NM_001124689.1 NP_001118161.1 hormone 1 mykiss 100305005 gh1 growth Ictalurus punctatus channel catfish NM_001200245.1 NP_001187174.1 hormone 1 100534452 gh1 growth Oreochromis Nile tilapia XM_003442542.5 XP_003442590.1 hormone 1 niloticus 101061166 gh1 growth Takifugu torafugu XM_029836218.1 XP_029692078.1 hormone 1 rubripes 101171460 gh1 growth Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_004084500.3 XP_004084548.1 hormone 1 101482244 gh1 growth Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_004556550.1 XP_004556607.1 hormone 1 102222100 gh1 growth Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_023348379.1 XP_023204147.1 hormone 1 maculatus 102298120 gh1 growth Haplochromis Burton's XM_005951881.2 XP_005951943.1 hormone 1 burtoni mouthbrooder 102349296 GH1 growth Latimeria coelacanth XM_014490978.1 XP_014346464.1 hormone 1 chalumnae 102694171 gh1 growth Lepisosteus spotted gar XM_006638287.2 XP_006638350.1 hormone 1 oculatus 102776637 gh1 growth Neolamprologus XM_006805238.2 XP_006805301.2 hormone 1 brichardi 103022738 gh1 growth Astyanax Mexican tetra XM_022666735.1 XP_022522456.1 hormone 1 mexicanus 103146889 gh1 growth Poecilia formosa Amazon molly XM_007564985.2 XP_007565047.1 hormone 1 103187720 gh1 growth Callorhinchus milii elephant shark XM_007907353.1 XP_007905544.1 hormone 1 103370773 gh1 growth Stegastes partitus bicolor damselfish XM_008299926.1 XP_008298148.1 hormone 1 103387754 gh1 growth Cynoglossus tongue sole NM_001294211.1 NP_001281140.1 hormone 1 semilaevis 103469032 gh1 growth Poecilia reticulata guppy XM_008416502.2 XP_008414724.1 hormone 1 104931893 gh1 growth Larimichthys large yellow NM_001303325.1 NP_001290254.1 hormone 1 crocea croaker 105023357 gh1 growth Esox lucius northern pike NM_001303940.1 NP_001290869.1 hormone 1 105890783 gh1 growth Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_031567293.1 XP_031423153.1 hormone 1 105932808 gh1 growth Fundulus mummichog XM_012872083.3 XP_012727537.1 hormone 1 heteroclitus 106528097 gh1 growth Austrofundulus XM_014023173.1 XP_013878627.1 hormone 1 limnaeus 106908006 gh1 growth Poecilia mexicana XM_014974317.1 XP_014829803.1 hormone 1 106951157 gh1 growth Poecilia latipinna sailfin molly XM_015038508.1 XP_014893994.1 hormone 1 107089309 gh1 growth Cyprinodon sheepshead XM_015382034.1 XP_015237520.1 hormone 1 variegatus minnow 107390293 gh1 growth Nothobranchius turquoise killifish XM_015966915.1 XP_015822401.1 hormone 1 furzeri 107740644 gh1 growth Sinocyclocheilus XM_016553136.1 XP_016408622.1 hormone 1 rhinocerous 108243233 gh1 growth Kryptolebias mangrove rivulus NM_001329353.1 NP_001316282.1 hormone 1 marmoratus 108439136 gh1 growth Pygocentrus red-bellied XM_017717373.1 XP_017572862.1 hormone 1 nattereri piranha 108873234 gh1 growth Lates calcarifer barramundi perch XM_018661387.1 XP_018516903.1 hormone 1 108941578 gh1 growth Scleropages Asian bonytongue XM_018764341.2 XP_018619857.1 hormone 1 formosus 109513754 gh1 growth Hippocampus tiger tail seahorse XM_019866396.1 XP_019721955.1 hormone 1 comes 109643344 gh1 growth Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020108431.1 XP_019963990.1 hormone 1 olivaceus 109893213 gh1 growth Oncorhynchus coho salmon XM_020486328.1 XP_020341917.1 hormone 1 kisutch 109972673 gh1 growth Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020621687.1 XP_020477343.1 hormone 1 109989318 gh1 growth Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_020641023.1 XP_020496679.1 hormone 1 110164350 gh1 growth Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020929380.1 XP_020785039.1 hormone 1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110963661 gh1 growth Acanthochromis spiny chromis XM_022212105.1 XP_022067797.1 hormone 1 polyacanthus 111239800 gh1 growth Seriola dumerili greater amberjack XM_022769709.1 XP_022625430.1 hormone 1 111568175 gh1 growth Amphiprion clown XM_023269682.2 XP_023125450.1 hormone 1 ocellaris anemonefish 111657519 gh1 growth Seriola lalandi XM_023409722.1 XP_023265490.1 hormone 1 dorsalis 111856077 gh1 growth Paramormyrops XM_023835741.1 XP_023691509.1 hormone 1 kingsleyae 111980263 gh1 growth Salvelinus alpinus Arctic char XM_024010963.1 XP_023866731.1 hormone 1 112139712 gh1 growth Oryzias melastigma Indian medaka XM_024262545.2 XP_024118313.1 hormone 1 112258502 gh1 growth Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024432922.1 XP_024288690.1 hormone 1 tshawytscha 113019958 gh1 growth Astatotilapia eastern happy XM_026163621.1 XP_026019406.1 hormone 1 calliptera 113048197 gh1 growth Carassius auratus goldfish XM_026209832.1 XP_026065617.1 hormone 1 113140986 gh1 growth Mastacembelus zig-zag eel XM_026325145.1 XP_026180930.1 hormone 1 armatus 113156240 gh1 growth Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026351247.1 XP_026207032.1 hormone 1 113543885 gh1 growth Pangasianodon striped catfish XM_026942413.2 XP_026798214.1 hormone 1 hypophthalmus 113587837 gh1 growth Electrophorus electric eel XM_027026729.2 XP_026882530.1 hormone 1 electricus 113662765 gh1 growth Tachysurus yellow catfish XM_027177856.1 XP_027033657.1 hormone 1 fulvidraco 114159494 gh1 growth Xiphophorus Monterrey XM_028041458.1 XP_027897259.1 hormone 1 couchianus platyfish 114439503 gh1 growth Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish XM_028411470.1 XP_028267271.1 hormone 1 114468109 gh1 growth Gouania blunt-snouted XM_.028454811.1 XP_028310612.1 hormone 1 willdenowi clingfish 114568956 gh1 growth Perea flavescens yellow perch XM_028598648.1 XP_028454449.1 hormone 1 114664390 gh1 growth Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028818474.1 XP_028674307.1 hormone 1 calabaricus 114793813 gh1 growth Denticeps denticle herring XM_028985943.1 XP_028841776.1 hormone 1 clupeoides 114861059 gh1 growth Betta splendens Siamese fighting XM_029160044.2 XP_029015877.1 hormone 1 fish 115047016 gh1 growth Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029507641.1 XP_029363501.1 hormone 1 115363560 gh1 growth Myripristis murdjan pinecone XM_030057829.1 XP_029913689.1 hormone 1 soldierfish 115386537 gh1 growth Salarias fasciatus jewelled blenny XM_030088891.1 XP_029944751.1 hormone 1 115416472 gh1 growth Sphaeramia oibiculate XM_030130247.1 XP_029986107.1 hormone 1 orbicularis cardinalfish 115532095 gh1 growth Gadus morhua Atlantic cod XM_030341618.1 XP_030197478.1 hormone 1 115574857 gh1 growth Sparus aurata gilthead seabream XM_030406481.1 XP_030262341.1 hormone 1 115784061 gh1 growth Archocentrus flier cichlid XM_030735123.1 XP_030590983.1 hormone 1 centrarchus 115829874 gh1 growth Chanos chanos milkfish XM_030794045.1 XP_030649905.1 hormone 1 116063544 gh1 growth Sander lucioperca pikeperch XM_031318542.2 XP_031174402.1 hormone 1 116319389 gh1 growth Oreochromis aureus XM_031738690.1 XP_031594550.1 hormone 1 116401140 gh1 growth Anarrhichthys wolf-eel XM_.031879401.1 XP_031735261.1 hormone 1 ocellatus 116736294 gh1 growth Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032588686.1 XP_032444577.1 hormone 1 hellerii 119421286 gh1 growth Nematolebias Rio pearlfish XM_037688659.1 XP_037544587.1 hormone 1 whitei

In some embodiments, the exogenous gene is a follistatin (FST) gene and/or gene product. Exemplary follistatin genes and/or gene products are shown in Table 28.

TABLE 28 Exemplary follistatin genes and/or gene products. RefSeq Transcript RefSeq Protein Gene ID Gene symbol Description Scientific name Common name accessions accessions 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human NM_013409.3 NP_037541.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human NM_006350.5 NP_006341.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_005248400.4 XP_005248457.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_005248401.4 XP_005248458.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_005248402.4 XP_005248459.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_005248403.4 XP_005248460.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_011543099.2 XP_011541401.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_017008954.1 XP_016864443.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_017008955.1 XP_016864444.1 10468 FST follistatin Homo sapiens human XM_024454326.1 XP_024310094.1 14313 Fst follistatin Mus musculus house mouse NM_001301373.1 NP_001288302.1 14313 Fst follistatin Mus musculus house mouse NM_008046.3 NP_032072.1 14313 Fst follistatin Mus musculus house mouse NM_001301375.1 NP_001288304.1 14313 Fst follistatin Mus musculus house mouse XM_030247150.2 XP_030103010.1 24373 Fst follistatin Rattus norvegicus Norway rat NM_012561.3 NP_036693.1 24373 Fst follistatin Rattus norvegicus Norway rat XM_006231953.4 XP_006232015.1 24373 Fst follistatin Rattus norvegicus Norway rat XM_006231954.4 XP_006232016.1 24373 Fst follistatin Rattus norvegicus Norway rat XM_039101713.1 XP_038957641.1 327681 FST follistatin Bos taurus cattle NM_175801.3 NP_786995.2 327681 FST follistatin Bos taurus cattle XM_005221516.4 XP_005221573.1 327681 FST follistatin Bos taurus cattle XM_005221517.4 XP_005221574.1 396119 FST follistatin Gallus gallus chicken NM_205200.1 NP_990531.1 396119 FST follistatin Gallus gallus chicken XM_015277250.3 XP_015132736.1 396119 FST follistatin Gallus gallus chicken XM_040655440.1 XP_040511374.1 443323 FST follistatin Ovis aries sheep NM_001257093.1 NP_001244022.1 443323 FST follistatin Ovis aries sheep XM_012096672.4 XP_011952062.2 443323 FST follistatin Ovis aries sheep XM_012096675.4 XP_011952065.2 445002 FST follistatin Sus scrofa pig NM_001003662.1 NP_001003662.1 461879 FST follistatin Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_003310709.5 XP_003310757.1 461879 FST follistatin Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_517768.6 XP_517768.3 461879 FST follistatin Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_009449166.3 XP_009447441.1 461879 FST follistatin Pan troglodytes chimpanzee XM_009449169.3 XP_009447444.1 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038498199.1 XP_038354127.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038474020.1 XP_038329948.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038474021.1 XP_038329949.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038474022.1 XP_038329950.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038498206.1 XP_038354134.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038498215.1 XP_038354143.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038535119.1 XP_038391047.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038535120.1 XP_038391048.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038535121.1 XP_038391049.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038599413.1 XP_038455341.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038599414.1 XP_038455342.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038599415.1 XP_038455343.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038663721.1 XP_038519649.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038663722.1 XP_038519650.1 familiaris 479336 FST follistatin Canis lupus dog XM_038663723.1 XP_038519651.1 familiaris 493419 fst follistatin Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed frog XM_012960359.3 XP_012815813.1 493419 fst follistatin Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed frog NM_001008056.1 NP_001008057.1 493419 fst follistatin Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed frog XM_012960363.3 XP_012815817.1 493419 fst follistatin Xenopus tropicalis tropical clawed frog XM_031898689.1 XP_031754549.1 653006 fsta follistatin a Takifugu rubripes torafugu XM_029828961.1 XP_029684821.1 653006 fsta follistatin a Takifugu rubripes torafugu NM_001037858.2 NP_001032947.1 653006 fsta follistatin a Takifugu rubripes torafugu XM_011615650.2 XP_011613952.1 653006 fsta follistatin a Takifugu rubripes torafugu XM_011615651.2 XP_011613953.1 707420 FST follistatin Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_001095829.4 XP_001095829.2 707420 FST follistatin Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015140070.2 XP_014995556.1 707420 FST follistatin Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015140071.2 XP_014995557.1 707420 FST follistatin Macaca mulatta Rhesus monkey XM_015140072.2 XP_014995558.1 100004116 fsta follistatin a Danio rerio zebrafish XM_005165257.4 XP_005165314.1 100004116 fsta follistatin a Danio rerio zebrafish NM_131037.3 NP_571112.3 100004116 fsta follistatin a Danio rerio zebrafish XM_009301618.3 XP_009299893.1 100016406 FST follistatin Monodelphis gray short-tailed XM_001365291.4 XP_001365328.1 domestica opossum 100016406 FST follistatin Monodelphis gray short-tailed XM_007486293.2 XP_007486355.1 domestica opossum 100016406 FST follistatin Monodelphis gray short-tailed XM_007486294.2 XP_007486356.1 domestica opossum 100033825 FST follistatin Equus caballus horse NM_001081811.2 NP_001075280.1 100033825 FST follistatin Equus caballus horse XM_023625236.1 XP_023481004.1 100033825 FST follistatin Equus caballus horse XM_023625237.1 XP_023481005.1 100033825 FST follistatin Equus caballus horse XM_023625239.1 XP_023481007.1 100075750 FST follistatin Ornthorhynchus platypus XM_029072241.2 XP_028928074.1 anatinus 100075750 FST follistatin Ornithorhynchus platypus XM_029072303.2 XP_028928136.1 anatinus 100226154 FST follistatin Taeniopygia zebra finch XM_002197254.6 XP_002197290.3 guttata 100301657 fsta follistatin a Oncorhynchus rainbow trout XM_036934621.1 XP_036790516.1 my kiss 100301657 fsta follistatin a Oncorhynchus rainbow trout NM_001160488.1 NP_001153960.1 mykiss 100343725 FST follistatin Oryctolagus rabbit XM_008262197.2 XP_008260419.2 cuniculus 100412680 FST follistatin Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_002744986.5 XP_002745032.1 marmoset 100412680 FST follistatin Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_002744987.5 XP_002745033.1 marmoset 100412680 FST follistatin Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_008992077.3 XP_008990325.1 marmoset 100412680 FST follistatin Callithrix jacchus white-tufted-ear XM_008992078.3 XP_008990326.1 marmoset 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_002815551.4 XP_002815597.1 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_009240704.2 XP_009238979.1 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_009240705.2 XP_009238980.1 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_009240706.2 XP_009238981.1 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_024247622.1 XP_024103390.1 100441294 FST follistatin Pongo abelii Sumatran orangutan XM_024247623.1 XP_024103391.1 100471063 FST follistatin Ailuropoda giant panda XM_002929325.4 XP_002929371.1 melanoleuca 100471063 FST follistatin Ailuropoda giant panda XM_011237337.3 XP_011235639.1 melanoleuca 100471063 FST follistatin Ailuropoda giant panda XM_011237338.3 XP_011235640.1 melanoleuca 100558257 fst follistatin Anolis carolinensis green anole XM_003216189.3 XP_003216237.1 100558257 fst follistatin Anolis carolinensis green anole XM_008102798.2 XP_008101005.1 100590138 FST follistatin Nomascus northern white- XM_003276522.3 XP_003276570.1 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100590138 FST follistatin Nomascus northern white- XM_003276523.3 XP_003276571.1 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100590138 FST follistatin Nomascus northern white- XM_012507849.2 XP_012363303.1 leucogenys cheeked gibbon 100665588 FST follistatin Loxodonta africana African savanna XM_003408029.3 XP_003408077.1 elephant 100665588 FST follistatin Loxodonta africana African savanna XM_010588140.1 XP_010586442.1 elephant 100695151 fsta follistatin a Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia XM_005473553.4 XP_005473610.1 100695151 fsta follistatin a Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia XM_003451019.5 XP_003451067.2 100727862 Fst follistatin Cavia porcellus domestic guinea pig XM_005003777.3 XP_005003834.1 100727862 Fst follistatin Cavia porcellus domestic guinea pig XM_003470187.3 XP_003470235.1 100727862 Fst follistatin Cavia porcellus domestic guinea pig XM_013152925.2 XP_013008379.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_027401432.2 XP_027257233.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_027401433.2 XP_027257234.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_027401434.2 XP_027257235.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035455723.1 XP_035311614.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035455724.1 XP_035311615.1 100774874 Fst follistatin Cricetulus griseus Chinese hamster XM_035455725.1 XP_035311616.1 100860914 FST follistatin Capra hircus goat NM_001285764.1 NP_001272693.1 100860914 FST follistatin Capra hircus goat XM_005694718.3 XP_005694775.3 100930409 FST follistatin Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_003759356.4 XP_003759404.1 100930409 FST follistatin Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_023495744.2 XP_023351512.1 100930409 FST follistatin Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil XM_031964951.1 XP_031820811.1 100940348 FST follistatin Otolemur gamettii small-eared galago XM_003782779.3 XP_003782827.1 100940348 FST follistatin Otolemur gamettii small-eared galago XM_012812529.2 XP_012667983.1 100940348 FST follistatin Otolemur gamettii small-eared galago XM_012812534.2 XP_012667988.1 100940348 FST follistatin Otolemur gamettii small-eared galago XM_012812539.2 XP_012667993.1 100968663 FST follistatin Pan paniscus pygmy chimpanzee XM_034960103.1 XP_034815994.1 100968663 FST follistatin Pan paniscus pygmy chimpanzee XM_034960104.1 XP_034815995.1 100968663 FST follistatin Pan paniscus pygmy chimpanzee XM_034960105.1 XP_034815996.1 100968663 FST follistatin Pan paniscus pygmy chimpanzee XM_034960106.1 XP_034815997.1 101016296 FST follistatin Papio anubis olive baboon XM_003899662.5 XP_003899711.1 101016296 FST follistatin Papio anubis olive baboon XM_003899663.5 XP_003899712.1 101016296 FST follistatin Papio anubis olive baboon XM_009208397.4 XP_009206661.1 101016296 FST follistatin Papio anubis olive baboon XM_009208400.4 XP_009206664.1 101039893 FST follistatin Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_003925865.3 XP_003925914.1 monkey 101039893 FST follistatin Saimiri boliviensis Bolivian squirrel XM_010336616.2 XP_010334918.1 monkey 101089985 FST follistatin Felis catus domestic cat XM_023260781.1 XP_023116549.1 101089985 FST follistatin Felis catus domestic cat XM_023260782.1 XP_023116550.1 101089985 FST follistatin Felis catus domestic cat XM_023260784.1 XP_023116552.1 101124464 FST follistatin Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_004058863.2 XP_004058911.1 101124464 FST follistatin Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_004058864.2 XP_004058912.1 101124464 FST follistatin Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_019013708.2 XP_018869253.1 101124464 FST follistatin Gorilla gorilla western gorilla XM_019013709.2 XP_018869254.1 101167370 fsta follistatin a Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_011478869.3 XP_011477171.1 101167370 fsta follistatin a Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_004072152.4 XP_004072200.1 101167370 fsta follistatin a Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_020705734.2 XP_020561393.1 101167370 fsta follistatin a Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka XM_020705735.2 XP_020561394.1 101281095 FST follistatin Orcinus orca killer whale XM_004275129.3 XP_004275177.1 101281095 FST follistatin Orcinus orca killer whale XM_004275130.2 XP_004275178.1 101281095 FST follistatin Orcinus orca killer whale XM_012534939.2 XP_012390393.1 101323813 FST follistatin Tursiops truncatus common bottlenose XM_033852857.1 XP_033708748.1 dolphin 101323813 FST follistatin Tursiops truncatus common bottlenose XM_033852858.1 XP_033708749.1 dolphin 101323813 FST follistatin Tursiops truncatus common bottlenose XM_033852859.1 XP_033708750.1 dolphin 101378021 FST follistatin Odobenus Pacific walrus XM_004413281.2 XP_004413338.1 rosmarus divergens 101378021 FST follistatin Odobenus Pacific walrus XM_004413282.2 XP_004413339.1 rosmarus divergens 101378021 FST follistatin Odobenus Pacific walrus XM_012566967.1 XP_012422421.1 rosmarus divergens 101446946 FST follistatin Dasypus nine-banded XM_004456174.3 XP_004456231.1 novemcinctus armadillo 101446946 FST follistatin Dasypus nine-banded XM_004456175.3 XP_004456232.1 novemcinctus armadillo 101487624 fsta follistatin a Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_004546982.3 XP_004547039.1 101487624 fsta follistatin a Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_004546983.3 XP_004547040.1 101487624 fsta follistatin a Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_004546985.2 XP_004547042.1 101487624 fsta follistatin a Maylandia zebra zebra mbuna XM_024804560.1 XP_024660328.1 101520741 FST follistatin Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004583694.2 XP_004583751.1 101520741 FST follistatin Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004583695.2 XP_004583752.1 101520741 FST follistatin Ochotona princeps American pika XM_004583696.2 XP_004583753.1 101551747 FST follistatin Sorex araneus European shrew XM_012932731.1 XP_012788185.1 101551747 FST follistatin Sorex araneus European shrew XM_012932732.1 XP_012788186.1 101571254 Fst follistatin Octodon degus degu XM_004623102.3 XP_004623159.1 101571254 Fst follistatin Octodon degus degu XM_004623103.2 XP_004623160.1 101571254 Fst follistatin Octodon degus degu XM_004623104.2 XP_004623161.1 101614423 Fst follistatin Jaculus jaculus lesser Egyptian XM_012950240.1 XP_012805694.1 jerboa 101634752 FST follistatin Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_004678328.1 XP_004678385.1 101634752 FST follistatin Condylura cristata star-nosed mole XM_012721714.1 XP_012577168.1 101650536 FST follistatin Echinops telfairi small Madagascar XM_013004915.1 XP_012860369.1 hedgehog 101675432 FST follistatin Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004737896.1 XP_004737953.1 furo 101675432 FST follistatin Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004737897.1 XP_004737954.1 furo 101675432 FST follistatin Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_004737898.2 XP_004737955.1 furo 101675432 FST follistatin Mustela putorius domestic ferret XM_013051293.1 XP_012906747.1 furo 101699924 Fst follistatin Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004848529.3 XP_004848586.1 glaber 101699924 Fst follistatin Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004848530.3 XP_004848587.1 glaber 101699924 Fst follistatin Heterocephalus naked mole-rat XM_004848531.3 XP_004848588.1 glaber 101802885 FST follistatin Anas mallard XM_005027327.4 XP_005027384.3 platyrhynchos 101802885 FST follistatin Anas mallard XM_027446660.2 XP_027302461.1 platyrhynchos 101819785 FST follistatin Ficedula albicollis Collared flycatcher XM_005060617.2 XP_005060674.1 101835278 Fst follistatin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_040729042.1 XP_040584976.1 auratus 101835278 Fst follistatin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_005082770.4 XP_005082827.1 auratus 101835278 Fst follistatin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_005082771.4 XP_005082828.1 auratus 101835278 Fst follistatin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_021234523.2 XP_021090182.1 auratus 101835278 Fst follistatin Mesocricetus golden hamster XM_040729043.1 XP_040584977.1 auratus 101913049 FST follistatin Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_005241996.2 XP_005242053.1 101913049 FST follistatin Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon XM_027793311.1 XP_027649112.1 101946966 FST follistatin Chrysemys picta Painted turtle XM_005282168.3 XP_005282225.1 101946966 FST follistatin Chrysemys picta Painted turtle XM_008168707.2 XP_008166929.1 101964628 Fst follistatin Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_013356062.3 XP_013211516.3 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101964628 Fst follistatin Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_040272980.1 XP_040128914.1 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101964628 Fst follistatin Ictidomys thirteen-lined XM_040272981.1 XP_040128915.1 tridecemlineatus ground squirrel 101992873 Fst follistatin Microtus prairie vole XM_005356819.3 XP_005356876.1 ochrogaster 101992873 Fst follistatin Microtus prairie vole XM_005356820.3 XP_005356877.1 ochrogaster 101992873 Fst follistatin Microtus prairie vole XM_013349773.2 XP_013205227.1 ochrogaster 102025060 Fst follistatin Chinchilla lanigera long-tailed XM_005392720.2 XP_005392777.1 chinchilla 102038114 FST follistatin Geospiza fortis medium ground- XM_031057846.1 XP_030913706.1 finch 102038114 FST follistatin Geospiza fortis medium ground- XR_004081830.1 finch 102070375 FST follistatin Zonotrichia white-throated XM_005490664.3 XP_005490721.1 albicollis sparrow 102091911 FST follistatin Columba livia rock pigeon XM_005500881.3 XP_005500938.1 102091911 FST follistatin Columba livia rock pigeon XM_005500882.2 XP_005500939.1 102105581 FST follistatin Pseudopodoces Tibetan ground-tit XM_005531148.2 XP_005531205.1 humilis 102135455 FST follistatin Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005556882.2 XP_005556939.1 macaque 102135455 FST follistatin Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005556883.2 XP_005556940.1 macaque 102135455 FST follistatin Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_005556885.2 XP_005556942.1 macaque 102135455 FST follistatin Macaca fascicularis crab-eating XM_015451504.1 XP_015306990.1 macaque 102230366 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_023344081.1 XP_023199849.1 maculatus 102230366 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_005798403.3 XP_005798460.2 maculatus 102230366 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus southern platyfish XM_023344082.1 XP_023199850.1 maculatus 102244041 FST follistatin Myotis brandtii Brandt's bat XM_014542272.1 XP_014397758.1 102275083 FST follistatin Bos mutus wild yak XM_005887365.2 XP_005887427.2 102307735 fsta follistatin a Haplochromis Burton's XM_005924442.3 XP_005924504.1 burtoni mouthbrooder 102307735 fsta follistatin a Haplochromis Burton's XM_005924443.3 XP_005924505.1 burtoni mouthbrooder 102307735 fsta follistatin a Haplochromis Burton's XM_005924444.3 XP_005924506.1 burtoni mouthbrooder 102307735 fsta follistatin a Haplochromis Burton's XM_005924445.3 XP_005924507.1 burtoni mouthbrooder 102379402 FST follistatin Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator XM_006017281.3 XP_006017343.1 102379402 FST follistatin Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator XM_025196124.1 XP_025051909.1 102407536 FST follistatin Bubalus bubalis water buffalo NM_001290906.1 NP_001277835.1 102407536 FST follistatin Bubalus bubalis water buffalo XM_006058302.2 XP_006058364.1 102407536 FST follistatin Bubalus bubalis water buffalo XM_006058303.2 XP_006058365.1 102427213 FST follistatin Myotis lucifugus little brown bat XM_006106641.3 XP_006106703.1 102453812 FST follistatin Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft-shelled XM_006139532.3 XP_006139594.1 turtle 102453812 FST follistatin Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft-shelled XM_006139535.3 XP_006139597.1 turtle 102453812 FST follistatin Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft-shelled XM_006139536.3 XP_006139598.1 turtle 102453812 FST follistatin Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese soft-shelled XM_025179683.1 XP_025035468.1 turtle 102523674 FST follistatin Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_006185919.2 XP_006185981.1 camel 102523674 FST follistatin Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_006185920.3 XP_006185982.1 camel 102523674 FST follistatin Camelus ferus Wild Bactrian XM_014560290.2 XP_014415776.1 camel 102544868 FST follistatin Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_006205984.2 XP_006206046.1 102544868 FST follistatin Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_006205985.3 XP_006206047.1 102544868 FST follistatin Vicugna pacos alpaca XM_015240723.2 XP_015096209.1 102561473 FST follistatin Alligator American alligator NM_001287297.1 NP_001274226.1 mississippiensis 102561473 FST follistatin Alligator American alligator XM_014593924.2 XP_014449410.2 mississippiensis 102741997 FST follistatin Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006739261.2 XP_006739324.1 weddellii 102741997 FST follistatin Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006739262.2 XP_006739325.1 weddellii 102741997 FST follistatin Leptonychotes Weddell seal XM_006739263.2 XP_006739326.1 weddellii 102760348 FST follistatin Myotis davidii XM_006761807.2 XP_006761870.1 102791513 fsta follistatin a Neolamprologus XM_006789984.2 XP_006790047.1 brichardi 102791513 fsta follistatin a Neolamprologus XM_006789982.2 XP_006790045.1 brichardi 102791513 fsta follistatin a Neolamprologus XM_006789983.2 XP_006790046.1 brichardi 102820781 FST follistatin Chrysochloris Cape golden mole XM_006865741.1 XP_006865803.1 asiatica 102820781 FST follistatin Chrysochloris Cape golden mole XM_006865742.1 XP_006865804.1 asiatica 102885249 FST follistatin Pteropus alecto black flying fox XM_015589835.2 XP_015445321.1 102915049 Fst follistatin Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_006979435.2 XP_006979497.1 maniculatus bairdii 102915049 Fst follistatin Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_006979436.2 XP_006979498.1 maniculatus bairdii 102915049 Fst follistatin Peromyscus prairie deer mouse XM_015998097.1 XP_015853583.1 maniculatus bairdii 102933010 FST follistatin Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle XM_007052812.3 XP_007052874.1 102933010 FST follistatin Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle XM_007052813.3 XP_007052875.1 102958597 FST follistatin Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_015535076.1 XP_015390562.1 altaica 102958597 FST follistatin Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_007076658.2 XP_007076720.2 altaica 102958597 FST follistatin Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_015535077.1 XP_015390563.1 altaica 102958597 FST follistatin Panthera tigris Amur tiger XM_015535078.1 XP_015390564.1 altaica 102994393 FST follistatin Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_007121217.3 XP_007121279.2 102994393 FST follistatin Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_024125119.1 XP_023980887.1 102994393 FST follistatin Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_024125123.2 XP_023980891.1 102994393 FST follistatin Physeter catodon sperm whale XM_024125128.2 XP_023980896.1 103024347 fsta follistatin a Astyanax Mexican tetra XM_022664911.1 XP_022520632.1 mexicanus 103024347 fsta follistatin a Astyanax Mexican tetra XM_022664912.1 XP_022520633.1 mexicanus 103053542 FST follistatin Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007433874.2 XP_007433936.1 103053542 FST follistatin Python bivittatus Burmese python XM_007433875.2 XP_007433937.1 103085247 FST follistatin Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007457197.1 XP_007457259.1 dolphin 103085247 FST follistatin Lipotes vexillifer Yangtze River XM_007457198.1 XP_007457260.1 dolphin 103109800 FST follistatin Erinaceus western European hedgehog XM_007518915.2 XP_007518977.1 europaeus 103145891 fsta follistatin a Poecilia formosa Amazon molly XM_007563543.2 XP_007563605.1 103145891 fsta follistatin a Poecilia formosa Amazon molly XM_007563544.2 XP_007563606.1 103145891 fsta follistatin a Poecilia formosa Amazon molly XM_007563545.2 XP_007563607.1 103177837 fsta follistatin a Callorhinchus milii elephant shark XM_007892196.1 XP_007890387.1 103177837 fsta follistatin a Callorhinchus milii elephant shark XM_007892197.1 XP_007890388.1 103221328 FST follistatin Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007972220.2 XP_007970411.1 sabaeus 103221328 FST follistatin Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007972226.2 XP_007970417.1 sabaeus 103221328 FST follistatin Chlorocebus green monkey XM_007972236.2 XP_007970427.1 sabaeus 103221328 FST follistatin Chlorocebus green monkey XM_037994647.1 XP_037850575.1 sabaeus 103298066 FST follistatin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_008154801.2 XP_008153023.1 103298066 FST follistatin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028130099.1 XP_027985900.1 103298066 FST follistatin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028130100.1 XP_027985901.1 103298066 FST follistatin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028130101.1 XP_027985902.1 103298066 FST follistatin Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat XM_028130102.1 XP_027985903.1 103359550 fsta follistatin a Stegastes partitus bicolor damselfish XM_008284944.1 XP_008283166.1 103359550 fsta follistatin a Stegastes partitus bicolor damselfish XM_008284945.1 XP_008283167.1 103469996 fsta follistatin a Poecilia reticulata guppy XM_008418097.2 XP_008416319.1 103469996 fsta follistatin a Poecilia reticulata guppy XM_008418098.2 XP_008416320.1 103469996 fsta follistatin a Poecilia reticulata guppy XM_008418099.2 XP_008416321.1 103534205 FST follistatin Calypte anna Anna's XM_008500140.2 XP_008498362.1 hummingbird 103534205 FST follistatin Calypte anna Anna's XM_030467688.1 XP_030323548.1 hummingbird 103558117 FST follistatin Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008530922.1 XP_008529144.1 103558117 FST follistatin Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008530931.1 XP_008529153.1 103558117 FST follistatin Equus przewalskii Przewalski's horse XM_008530939.1 XP_008529161.1 103623958 FST follistatin Corvus American crow XM_008643143.2 XP_008641365.2 brachyrhynchos 103664631 FST follistatin Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_008692551.2 XP_008690773.1 103664631 FST follistatin Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_008692552.2 XP_008690774.1 103664631 FST follistatin Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_008692553.2 XP_008690775.1 103664631 FST follistatin Ursus maritimus polar bear XM_040630444.1 XP_040486378.1 103734045 Fst follistatin Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008832943.3 XP_008831165.1 mountains blind mole rat 103734045 Fst follistatin Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008832944.2 XP_008831166.1 mountains blind mole rat 103734045 Fst follistatin Nannospalax galili Upper Galilee XM_008832945.3 XP_008831167.1 mountains blind mole rat 103774397 FST follistatin Merops nubicus carmine bee-eater XM_008941799.1 XP_008940047.1 103809047 FST follistatin Acanthisitta chloris rifleman XM_009081858.1 XP_009080106.1 103821024 FST follistatin Serinus canaria Common canary XM_030237546.1 XP_030093406.1 103893407 FST follistatin Aptenodytes emperor penguin XM_009272530.2 XP_009270805.1 forsteri 103919435 FST follistatin Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin XM_009326941.1 XP_009325216.1 104037688 FST follistatin Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian pelican XM_009491750.1 XP_009490025.1 104054776 FST follistatin Cuculus canorus common cuckoo XM_009555834.1 XP_009554129.1 104082847 FST follistatin Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar XM_009586104.1 XP_009584399.1 104134687 FST follistatin Egretta garzetta little egret XM_009648267.2 XP_009646562.1 104162299 FST follistatin Cariama cristata Red-legged seriema XM_009700996.1 XP_009699298.1 104252536 FST follistatin Gavia stellata red-throated loon XM_009813323.1 XP_009811625.1 104273551 FST follistatin Apaloderma bar-tailed trogon XM_009868913.1 XP_009867215.1 vittatum 104294574 FST follistatin Charadrius killdeer XM_009894192.1 XP_009892494.1 vociferus 104304333 FST follistatin Dryobates Downy woodpecker XM_009905062.1 XP_009903364.1 pubescens 104313256 FST follistatin Haliaeetus albicilla white-tailed eagle XM_009912116.1 XP_009910418.1 104337782 FST follistatin Opisthocomus XM_009943767.1 XP_009942069.1 hoazin 104353848 FST follistatin Leptosomus cuckoo roller XM_009960564.1 XP_009958866.1 discolor 104359013 FST follistatin Tyto alba Bam owl XM_033009189.1 XP_032865080.1 104378937 FST follistatin Tauraco red-crested turaco XM_009986089.1 XP_009984391.1 erythrolophus 104395661 FST follistatin Chaetura pelagica chimney swift XM_010005390.1 XP_010003692.1 104465848 FST follistatin Pterocles gutturalis yellow-throated XM_010079058.1 XP_010077360.1 sandgrouse 104482316 FST follistatin Chlamydotis Macqueen's bustard XM_010123778.1 XP_010122080.1 macqueenii 104499162 FST follistatin Buceros rhinoceros XM_010142631.1 XP_010140933.1 silvestris 104510958 FST follistatin Eurypyga helias sunbittem XM_010153381.1 XP_010151683.1 104534719 FST follistatin Mesitomis unicolor brown roatelo XM_010184355.1 XP_010182657.1 104563900 FST follistatin Colius striatus speckled mousebird XM_010210492.1 XP_010208794.1 104570340 FST follistatin Tinamus guttatus white-throated XM_010217341.1 XP_010215643.1 tinamou 104570340 FST follistatin Tinamus guttatus white-throated XM_010217342.1 XP_010215644.1 tinamou 104615559 FST follistatin Phaethon lepturus White-tailed XM_010287616.1 XP_010285918.1 tropicbird 104639935 FST follistatin Balearica East African grey XM_010308139.1 XP_010306441.1 regulorum crowned-crane gibbericeps 104672474 FST follistatin Rhinopithecus golden snub-nosed XM_010376269.2 XP_010374571.1 roxellana monkey 104672474 FST follistatin Rhinopithecus golden snub-nosed XM_010376270.2 XP_010374572.1 roxellana monkey 104829356 FST follistatin Haliaeetus bald eagle XM_010563543.1 XP_010561845.1 leucocephalus 104922976 fsta follistatin a Larimichthys large yellow croaker NM_001303338.1 NP_001290267.1 crocea 104961565 fsta follistatin a Notothenia black rockcod XM_010789876.1 XP_010788178.1 coriiceps 104961565 fsta follistatin a Notothenia black rockcod XM_010789877.1 XP_010788179.1 coriiceps 104961565 fsta follistatin a Notothenia black rockcod XM_010789878.1 XP_010788180.1 coriiceps 105001054 FST follistatin Bison bison bison XM_010857168.1 XP_010855470.1 105014556 fsta follistatin a Esox lucius northern pike XM_010876967.3 XP_010875269.1 105077820 FST follistatin Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel XM_010966299.1 XP_010964601.1 105077820 FST follistatin Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel XM_010966300.1 XP_010964602.1 105084297 FST follistatin Camelus Arabian camel XM_031444954.1 XP_031300814.1 dromedarius 105084297 FST follistatin Camelus Arabian camel XM_031444956.1 XP_031300816.1 dromedarius 105084297 FST follistatin Camelus Arabian camel XM_031444957.1 XP_031300817.1 dromedarius 105305798 FST follistatin Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011380601.2 XP_011378903.1 105305798 FST follistatin Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011380600.2 XP_011378902.1 105305798 FST follistatin Pteropus vampyrus large flying fox XM_011380602.2 XP_011378904.1 105499365 FST follistatin Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed macaque XM_011771908.2 XP_011770210.1 105499365 FST follistatin Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed macaque XM_011771909.2 XP_011770211.1 105499365 FST follistatin Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed macaque XM_011771912.2 XP_011770214.1 105499365 FST follistatin Macaca nemestrina pig-tailed macaque XM_011771913.2 XP_011770215.1 105553461 FST follistatin Mandrillus drill XM_011999536.1 XP_011854926.1 leucophaeus 105553461 FST follistatin Mandrillus drill XM_011999537.1 XP_011854927.1 leucophaeus 105553461 FST follistatin Mandrillus drill XM_011999538.1 XP_011854928.1 leucophaeus 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087006.1 XP_011942396.1 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087007.1 XP_011942397.1 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087008.1 XP_011942398.1 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087009.1 XP_011942399.1 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087010.1 XP_011942400.1 105598090 FST follistatin Cercocebus atys sooty mangabey XM_012087011.1 XP_011942401.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449562.1 XP_012304985.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449563.1 XP_012304986.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449566.1 XP_012304989.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449567.1 XP_012304990.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449568.1 XP_012304991.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XM_012449569.1 XP_012304992.1 105715277 FST follistatin Aotus nancymaae Ma's night monkey XR_001107016.1 105867022 FST follistatin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012756751.1 XP_012612205.1 murinus 105867022 FST follistatin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012756752.1 XP_012612206.1 murinus 105867022 FST follistatin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012756753.1 XP_012612207.1 murinus 105867022 FST follistatin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012756754.1 XP_012612208.1 murinus 105867022 FST follistatin Microcebus gray mouse lemur XM_012756755.1 XP_012612209.1 murinus 105901234 fsta follistatin a Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_012828661.2 XP_012684115.1 105901234 fsta follistatin a Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_012828663.2 XP_012684117.1 105901234 fsta follistatin a Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_012828664.2 XP_012684118.1 105901234 fsta follistatin a Clupea harengus Atlantic herring XM_012828665.2 XP_012684119.1 105928403 fsta follistatin a Fundulus mummichog XM_012865646.3 XP_012721100.2 heteroclitus 105928403 fsta follistatin a Fundulus mummichog XM_012865647.3 XP_012721101.2 heteroclitus 105928403 fsta follistatin a Fundulus mummichog XM_012865648.3 XP_012721102.2 heteroclitus 105928403 fsta follistatin a Fundulus mummichog XM_012865649.3 XP_012721103.2 heteroclitus 105987327 Fst follistatin Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo rat XM_013018543.1 XP_012873997.1 105987327 Fst follistatin Dipodomys ordii Ord's kangaroo rat XM_013018544.1 XP_012873998.1 106494556 FST follistatin Apteryx mantelli XM_013954842.1 XP_013810296.1 mantelli 106494556 FST follistatin Apteryx mantelli XM_013954844.1 XP_013810298.1 mantelli 106494556 FST follistatin Apteryx mantelli XM_013954845.1 XP_013810299.1 mantelli 106494556 FST follistatin Apteryx mantelli XM_013954846.1 XP_013810300.1 mantelli 106519902 fsta follistatin a Austrofundulus XM_014011758.1 XP_013867212.1 limnaeus 106519902 fsta follistatin a Austrofundulus XM_014011759.1 XP_013867213.1 limnaeus 106548877 FST follistatin Thamnophis sirtalis XM_014066371.1 XP_013921846.1 106570922 fsta follistatin a Salmo salar Atlantic salmon XM_014143509.1 XP_013998984.1 106843330 FST follistatin Equus asinus ass XM_014860314.1 XP_014715800.1 106861369 FST follistatin Sturnus vulgaris Common starling XM_014889715.1 XP_014745201.1 106901843 FST follistatin Calidris pugnax ruff XM_014964856.1 XP_014820342.1 106929042 fsta follistatin a Poecilia mexicana XM_015005706.1 XP_014861192.1 106929042 fsta follistatin a Poecilia mexicana XM_015005707.1 XP_014861193.1 106929042 fsta follistatin a Poecilia mexicana XM_015005708.1 XP_014861194.1 106962839 fsta follistatin a Poecilia latipinna sailfin molly XM_015057475.1 XP_014912961.1 106962839 fsta follistatin a Poecilia latipinna sailfin molly XM_015057476.1 XP_014912962.1 106962839 fsta follistatin a Poecilia latipinna sailfin molly XM_015057477.1 XP_014912963.1 106976291 FST follistatin Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027076511.1 XP_026932312.1 106976291 FST follistatin Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027076513.1 XP_026932314.1 106976291 FST follistatin Acinonyx jubatus cheetah XM_027076516.1 XP_026932317.1 107089689 fsta follistatin a Cyprinodon sheepshead minnow XM_015382604.1 XP_015238090.1 variegatus 107089689 fsta follistatin a Cyprinodon sheepshead minnow XM_015382605.1 XP_015238091.1 variegatus 107089689 fsta follistatin a Cyprinodon sheepshead minnow XM_015382606.1 XP_015238092.1 variegatus 107117112 FST follistatin Gekko japonicus XM_015419168.1 XP_015274654.1 107117112 FST follistatin Gekko japonicus XM_015419176.1 XP_015274662.1 107151899 Fst follistatin Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015497312.1 XP_015352798.1 marmota 107151899 Fst follistatin Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015497313.1 XP_015352799.1 marmota 107151899 Fst follistatin Marmota marmota Alpine marmot XM_015497314.1 XP_015352800.1 marmota 107215711 FST follistatin Pares major Great Tit XM_015652092.3 XP_015507578.1 107286756 FST follistatin Protobothrops XM_015815175.1 XP_015670661.1 mucrosquamatus 107286756 FST follistatin Protobothrops XM_015815177.1 XP_015670663.1 mucrosquamatus 107286756 FST follistatin Protobothrops XM_015815178.1 XP_015670664.1 mucrosquamatus 107305980 FST follistatin Cotumix japonica Japanese quail NM_001323191.1 NP_001310120.1 107305980 FST follistatin Cotumix japonica Japanese quail XM_015848705.2 XP_015704191.1 107305980 FST follistatin Cotumix japonica Japanese quail XM_015848706.2 XP_015704192.1 107394289 fsta follistatin a Nothobranchius turquoise killifish XM_015973174.1 XP_015828660.1 furzeri 107394289 fsta follistatin a Nothobranchius turquoise killifish XM_015973172.1 XP_015828658.1 furzeri 107394289 fsta follistatin a Nothobranchius turquoise killifish XM_015973173.1 XP_015828659.1 furzeri 107509659 FST follistatin Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016142363.2 XP_015997849.1 aegyptiacus 107509659 FST follistatin Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016142364.2 XP_015997850.1 aegyptiacus 107509659 FST follistatin Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016142365.2 XP_015997851.1 aegyptiacus 107509659 FST follistatin Rousettus Egyptian rousette XM_016142366.2 XP_015997852.1 aegyptiacus 108233656 fsta follistatin a Kryptolebias marmoratus mangrove rivulus XM_017412250.3 XP_017267739.1 108233656 fsta follistatin a Kryptolebias marmoratus mangrove rivulus XM_017412251.3 XP_017267740.1 108233656 fsta follistatin a Kryptolebias marmoratus mangrove rivulus XM_017412252.3 XP_017267741.1 108233656 fsta follistatin a Kryptolebias marmoratus mangrove rivulus XM_037976290.1 XP_037832218.1 108256050 fsta follistatin a Ictalures punctatus channel catfish XM_017452541.1 XP_017308030.1 108256050 fsta follistatin a Ictalures punctatus channel catfish XM_017452542.1 XP_017308031.1 108256050 fsta follistatin a Ictalures punctatus channel catfish XM_017452543.1 XP_017308032.1 108393736 FST follistatin Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017654769.2 XP_017510258.1 108393736 FST follistatin Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017654770.2 XP_017510259.1 108393736 FST follistatin Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017654771.2 XP_017510260.1 108393736 FST follistatin Manis javanica Malayan pangolin XM_017654772.2 XP_017510261.1 108438331 fsta follistatin a Pygocentrus red-bellied piranha XM_017716056.2 XP_017571545.1 nattereri 108438331 fsta follistatin a Pygocentrus red-bellied piranha XM_017716058.2 XP_017571547.1 nattereri 108518314 FST follistatin Rhinopithecus bieti black snub-nosed XM_017856573.1 XP_017712062.1 monkey 108792527 FST follistatin Nanorana parkeri XM_018563321.1 XP_018418823.1 108881314 fsta follistatin a Lates calcarifer barramundi perch XM_018673243.1 XP_018528759.1 108938465 fsta follistatin a Scleropages Asian bonytongue XM_018759026.2 XP_018614542.1 formosus 109275898 FST follistatin Panthera pardus leopard XM_019464328.1 XP_019319873.1 109275898 FST follistatin Panthera pardus leopard XM_019464329.1 XP_019319874.1 109275898 FST follistatin Panthera pardus leopard XM_019464330.1 XP_019319875.1 109297826 FST follistatin Gavialis gangeticus Gharial XM_019517876.1 XP_019373421.1 109297826 FST follistatin Gavialis gangeticus Gharial XM_019517877.1 XP_019373422.1 109307904 FST follistatin Crocodylus Australian saltwater XM_019532050.1 XP_019387595.1 porosus crocodile 109307904 FST follistatin Crocodylus Australian saltwater XM_019532051.1 XP_019387596.1 porosus crocodile 109382113 FST follistatin Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019641418.1 XP_019496963.1 armiger 109382113 FST follistatin Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019641419.1 XP_019496964.1 armiger 109382113 FST follistatin Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019641420.1 XP_019496965.1 armiger 109382113 FST follistatin Hipposideros great roundleaf bat XM_019641421.1 XP_019496966.1 armiger 109526767 fsta follistatin a Hippocampus tiger tail seahorse XM_019888249.1 XP_019743808.1 comes 109526767 fsta follistatin a Hippocampus tiger tail seahorse XM_019888259.1 XP_019743818.1 comes 109526767 fsta follistatin a Hippocampus tiger tail seahorse XM_019888268.1 XP_019743827.1 comes 109574972 FST follistatin Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019983027.1 XP_019838586.1 109574972 FST follistatin Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019983028.1 XP_019838587.1 109574972 FST follistatin Bos indicus zebu cattle XM_019983030.1 XP_019838589.1 109637161 fsta follistatin a Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020099353.1 XP_019954912.1 olivaceus 109637161 fsta follistatin a Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020099354.1 XP_019954913.1 olivaceus 109637161 fsta follistatin a Paralichthys Japanese flounder XM_020099355.1 XP_019954914.1 olivaceus 109691801 Fst follistatin Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020171997.1 XP_020027586.1 109691801 Fst follistatin Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020171998.1 XP_020027587.1 109691801 Fst follistatin Castor canadensis American beaver XM_020171999.1 XP_020027588.1 109956679 fsta follistatin a Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020593986.1 XP_020449642.1 109956679 fsta follistatin a Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020593987.1 XP_020449643.1 109956679 fsta follistatin a Monopterus albus swamp eel XM_020593988.1 XP_020449644.1 109991601 fsta follistatin a Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_020643928.2 XP_020499584.1 109991601 fsta follistatin a Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_020643930.2 XP_020499586.1 109991601 fsta follistatin a Labrus bergylta ballan wrasse XM_020643931.2 XP_020499587.1 110073924 FST follistatin Pogona vitticeps central bearded dragon XM_020783654.1 XP_020639313.1 110073924 FST follistatin Pogona vitticeps central bearded dragon XM_020783655.1 XP_020639314.1 110142525 FST follistatin Odocoileus XM_020901748.1 XP_020757407.1 virginianus texanus 110142525 FST follistatin Odocoileus XM_020901749.1 XP_020757408.1 virginianus texanus 110142525 FST follistatin Odocoileus XM_020901750.1 XP_020757409.1 virginianus texanus 110161295 fsta follistatin a Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020926058.1 XP_020781717.1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110161295 fsta follistatin a Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020926131.1 XP_020781790.1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110161295 fsta follistatin a Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020926203.1 XP_020781862.1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110161295 fsta follistatin a Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020926277.1 XP_020781936.1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110161295 fsta follistatin a Boleophthalmus great blue-spotted XM_020926356.1 XP_020782015.1 pectinirostris mudskipper 110215453 FST follistatin Phascolarctos koala XM_020996918.1 XP_020852577.1 cinereus 110215453 FST follistatin Phascolarctos koala XM_020996930.1 XP_020852589.1 cinereus 110307956 Fst follistatin Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021180264.1 XP_021035923.1 110307956 Fst follistatin Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021180265.1 XP_021035924.1 110307956 Fst follistatin Mus caroli Ryukyu mouse XM_021180266.2 XP_021035925.1 110328968 Fst follistatin Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021208475.2 XP_021064134.1 110328968 Fst follistatin Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021208476.1 XP_021064135.1 110328968 Fst follistatin Mus pahari shrew mouse XM_021208477.2 XP_021064136.1 110389795 FST follistatin Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021380734.1 XP_021236409.1 guineafowl 110389795 FST follistatin Numida meleagris helmeted XM_021380735.1 XP_021236410.1 guineafowl 110565358 Fst follistatin Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021663033.1 XP_021518708.1 unguiculatus 110565358 Fst follistatin Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021663034.1 XP_021518709.1 unguiculatus 110565358 Fst follistatin Meriones Mongolian gerbil XM_021663035.1 XP_021518710.1 unguiculatus 110586589 FST follistatin Neomonachus Hawaiian monk seal XM_021696815.1 XP_021552490.1 schauinslandi 110586589 FST follistatin Neomonachus Hawaiian monk seal XM_021696825.1 XP_021552500.1 schauinslandi 110968245 fsta follistatin a Acanthochromis spiny chromis XM_022218084.1 XP_022073776.1 polyacanthus 110968245 fsta follistatin a Acanthochromis spiny chromis XM_022218085.1 XP_022073777.1 polyacanthus 111163133 FST follistatin Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022551613.1 XP_022407321.1 leucas 111163133 FST follistatin Delphinapterus beluga whale XM_022551624.2 XP_022407332.1 leucas 111236471 fsta follistatin a Seriola dumerili greater amberjack XM_022765210.1 XP_022620931.1 111236471 fsta follistatin a Seriola dumerili greater amberjack XM_022765211.1 XP_022620932.1 111567825 fsta follistatin a Amphiprion clown anemonefish XM_023269155.2 XP_023124923.1 ocellaris 111567825 fsta follistatin a Amphiprion clown anemonefish XM_023269156.2 XP_023124924.1 ocellaris 111567825 fsta follistatin a Amphiprion clown anemonefish XM_035947641.1 XP_035803534.1 ocellaris 111941409 FST follistatin Cyanistes caeruleus blue tit XM_023944540.1 XP_023800308.1 112148295 fsta follistatin a Oryzias Indian medaka XM_024275280.2 XP_024131048.1 melastigma 112148295 fsta follistatin a Oryzias Indian medaka XM_024275281.2 XP_024131049.1 melastigma 112148295 fsta follistatin a Oryzias Indian medaka XM_024275282.2 XP_024131050.1 melastigma 112148295 fsta follistatin a Oryzias Indian medaka XM_036213417.1 XP_036069310.1 melastigma 112148295 fsta follistatin a Oryzias Indian medaka XM_036213418.1 XP_036069311.1 melastigma 112262496 fsta follistatin a Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024438115.1 XP_024293883.1 tshawytscha 112262496 fsta follistatin a Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024438113.1 XP_024293881.1 tshawytscha 112262496 fsta follistatin a Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon XM_024438114.1 XP_024293882.1 tshawytscha 112315278 FST follistatin Desmodus common vampire XM_024571961.1 XP_024427729.1 rotundus bat 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389148.1 XP_025244933.1 gelada 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389149.1 XP_025244934.1 gelada 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389151.1 XP_025244936.1 gelada 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389152.1 XP_025244937.1 gelada 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389153.1 XP_025244938.1 gelada 112626804 FST follistatin Theropithecus gelada XM_025389154.1 XP_025244939.1 gelada 112820221 FST follistatin Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025867292.1 XP_025723077.1 112820221 FST follistatin Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025867293.1 XP_025723078.1 112820221 FST follistatin Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025867294.1 XP_025723079.1 112820221 FST follistatin Callorhinus ursinus northern fur seal XM_025867295.1 XP_025723080.1 112860476 FST follistatin Puma concolor puma XM_025923779.1 XP_025779564.1 112933767 FST follistatin Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_026017016.1 XP_025872801.1 112933767 FST follistatin Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_026017017.1 XP_025872802.1 112933767 FST follistatin Vulpes vulpes red fox XM_026017018.1 XP_025872803.1 112944327 FST follistatin Nothoprocta XM_026035735.1 XP_025891520.1 perdicaria 112944327 FST follistatin Nothoprocta XM_026035742.1 XP_025891527.1 perdicaria 112995786 FST follistatin Dromaius emu XM_026120983.1 XP_025976768.1 novaehollandiae 112995786 FST follistatin Dromaius emu XM_026120984.1 XP_025976769.1 novaehollandiae 112995786 FST follistatin Dromaius emu XM_026120985.1 XP_025976770.1 novaehollandiae 113034074 fsta follistatin a Astatotilapia eastern happy XM_026188371.1 XP_026044156.1 calliptera 113034074 fsta follistatin a Astatotilapia eastern happy XM_026188372.1 XP_026044157.1 calliptera 113138729 fsta follistatin a Mastacembelus zig-zag eel XM_026321412.2 XP_026177197.1 armatus 113138729 fsta follistatin a Mastacembelus zig-zag eel XM_026321413.2 XP_026177198.1 armatus 113150568 fsta follistatin a Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026343128.1 XP_026198913.1 113150568 fsta follistatin a Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026343129.1 XP_026198914.1 113150568 fsta follistatin a Anabas testudineus climbing perch XM_026343130.1 XP_026198915.1 113180790 Fst follistatin Urocitellus parryii Arctic ground XM_026385943.1 XP_026241728.1 squirrel 113263911 FST follistatin Ursus arctos XM_026510680.1 XP_026366465.1 horribilis 113263911 FST follistatin Ursus arctos XM_026510681.1 XP_026366466.1 horribilis 113263911 FST follistatin Ursus arctos XM_026510682.1 XP_026366467.1 horribilis 113263911 FST follistatin Ursus arctos XM_026510684.1 XP_026366469.1 horribilis 113425296 FST follistatin Notechis scutatus mainland tiger XM_026687390.1 XP_026543175.1 snake 113446710 FST follistatin Pseudonaja textilis XM_026716484.1 XP_026572269.1 113446710 FST follistatin Pseudonaja textilis XM_026716493.1 XP_026572278.1 113446710 FST follistatin Pseudonaja textilis XM_026716501.1 XP_026572286.1 113446710 FST follistatin Pseudonaja textilis XM_026716511.1 XP_026572296.1 113489646 FST follistatin Athene cunicularia burrowing owl XM_026865566.1 XP_026721367.1 113589819 fsta follistatin a Electrophorus electric eel XM_027029665.2 XP_026885466.1 electricus 113617555 FST follistatin Lagenorhynchus Pacific white-sided XM_027101130.1 XP_026956931.1 obliquidens dolphin 113617555 FST follistatin Lagenorhynchus Pacific white-sided XM_027101131.1 XP_026956932.1 obliquidens dolphin 113617555 FST follistatin Lagenorhynchus Pacific white-sided XM_027101132.1 XP_026956933.1 obliquidens dolphin 113878983 FST follistatin Bos indicus × Bos hybrid cattle XM_027520199.1 XP_027376000.1 taurus 113878983 FST follistatin Bos indicus × Bos hybrid cattle XM_027520200.1 XP_027376001.1 taurus 113878983 FST follistatin Bos indicus × Bos hybrid cattle XM_027520201.1 XP_027376002.1 taurus 113929788 FST follistatin Zalophus California sea lion XM_027606936.2 XP_027462737.1 californianus 113929788 FST follistatin Zalophus California sea lion XM_027606937.2 XP_027462738.1 californianus 113929788 FST follistatin Zalophus California sea lion XM_027606938.1 XP_027462739.1 californianus 113981780 FST follistatin Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027709360.1 XP_027565161.1 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 113981780 FST follistatin Neopelma saffron-crested XM_027709361.1 XP_027565162.1 chrysocephalum tyrant-manakin 114044168 FST follistatin Vombatus ursinus common wombat XM_027863496.1 XP_027719297.1 114044168 FST follistatin Vombatus ursinus common wombat XM_027863497.1 XP_027719298.1 114072516 FST follistatin Empidonax traillii willow flycatcher XM_027910407.1 XP_027766208.1 114072516 FST follistatin Empidonax traillii willow flycatcher XM_027910415.1 XP_027766216.1 114094969 Fst follistatin Marmota yellow-bellied XM_027938122.1 XP_027793923.1 flaviventris marmot 114094969 Fst follistatin Marmota yellow-bellied XM_027938123.2 XP_027793924.1 flaviventris marmot 114154714 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus Monterrey platyfish XM_028034049.1 XP_027889850.1 couchianus 114154714 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus Monterrey platyfish XM_028034051.1 XP_027889852.1 couchianus 114154714 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus Monterrey platyfish XM_028034052.1 XP_027889853.1 couchianus 114154714 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus Monterrey platyfish XM_028034053.1 XP_027889854.1 couchianus 114211938 FST follistatin Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028106654.1 XP_027962455.1 114211938 FST follistatin Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028106655.1 XP_027962456.1 114211938 FST follistatin Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028106656.1 XP_027962457.1 114211938 FST follistatin Eumetopias jubatus Steller sea lion XM_028106657.1 XP_027962458.1 114441645 fsta follistatin a Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish XM_028414661.1 XP_028270462.1 114441645 fsta follistatin a Parambassis ranga Indian glassy fish XM_028414662.1 XP_028270463.1 114500867 FST follistatin Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed bat XM_028517630.2 XP_028373431.1 discolor 114500867 FST follistatin Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed bat XM_036020156.1 XP_035876049.1 discolor 114500867 FST follistatin Phyllostomus pale spear-nosed bat XM_036020157.1 XP_035876050.1 discolor 114556105 fsta follistatin a Perea flavescens yellow perch XM_028578962.1 XP_028434763.1 114606515 FST follistatin Podarcis muralis Common wall lizard XM_028748865.1 XP_028604698.1 114606515 FST follistatin Podarcis muralis Common wall lizard XM_028748866.1 XP_028604699.1 114654814 fsta follistatin a Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028805619.1 XP_028661452.1 calabaricus 114654814 fsta follistatin a Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028805620.1 XP_028661453.1 calabaricus 114654814 fsta follistatin a Erpetoichthys reedfish XM_028805621.1 XP_028661454.1 calabaricus 114703713 Fst follistatin Peromyscus white-footed mouse XM_028884585.2 XP_028740418.1 leucopus 114703713 Fst follistatin Peromyscus white-footed mouse XM_028884588.2 XP_028740421.1 leucopus 114703713 Fst follistatin Peromyscus white-footed mouse XM_028884597.2 XP_028740430.1 leucopus 114862477 fsta follistatin a Betta splendens Siamese fighting XM_029162808.2 XP_029018641.1 fish 114862477 fsta follistatin a Betta splendens Siamese fighting XM_029162809.2 XP_029018642.1 fish 114893383 FST follistatin Monodon narwhal XM_029219138.1 XP_029074971.1 monoceros 115013848 fsta follistatin a Cottoperca gobio XM_029440383.1 XP_029296243.1 115013848 fsta follistatin a Cottoperca gobio XM_029440384.1 XP_029296244.1 115049185 fsta follistatin a Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029511210.1 XP_029367070.1 115049185 fsta follistatin a Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029511211.1 XP_029367071.1 115049185 fsta follistatin a Echeneis naucrates live sharksucker XM_029511212.1 XP_029367072.1 115076244 FST follistatin Rhinatrema two-lined caecilian XM_029577474.1 XP_029433334.1 bivittatum 115076244 FST follistatin Rhinatrema two-lined caecilian XM_029577484.1 XP_029433344.1 bivittatum 115076244 FST follistatin Rhinatrema two-lined caecilian XR_003852712.1 bivittatum 115293773 FST follistatin Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029941471.1 XP_029797331.1 115293773 FST follistatin Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029941472.1 XP_029797332.1 115293773 FST follistatin Suricata suricatta meerkat XM_029941473.1 XP_029797333.1 115337401 FST follistatin Aquila chrysaetos XM_030005665.2 XP_029861525.1 chrysaetos 115337401 FST follistatin Aquila chrysaetos XM_030005667.2 XP_029861527.1 chrysaetos 115398055 fsta follistatin a Salaries fasciatus jewelled blenny XM_030104682.1 XP_029960542.1 115398055 fsta follistatin a Salarias fasciatus jewelled blenny XM_030104683.1 XP_029960543.1 115462982 FST follistatin Microcaecilia XM_030193118.1 XP_030048978.1 unicolor 115462982 FST follistatin Microcaecilia XM_030193119.1 XP_030048979.1 unicolor 115462982 FST follistatin Microcaecilia XM_030193120.1 XP_030048980.1 unicolor 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330028.1 XP_030185888.1 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330037.1 XP_030185897.1 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330039.1 XP_030185899.1 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330040.1 XP_030185900.1 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330043.1 XP_030185903.1 115523762 FST follistatin Lynx canadensis Canada lynx XM_030330044.2 XP_030185904.1 115554096 fsta follistatin a Gadus morhua Atlantic cod XM_030370711.1 XP_030226571.1 115554096 fsta follistatin a Gadus morhua Atlantic cod XM_030370712.1 XP_030226572.1 115581546 fsta follistatin a Spares aurata gilthead seabream XM_030416715.1 XP_030272575.1 115581546 fsta follistatin a Spares aurata gilthead seabream XM_030416716.1 XP_030272576.1 115581546 fsta follistatin a Spares aurata gilthead seabream XM_030416717.1 XP_030272577.1 115785746 fsta follistatin a Archocentres flier cichlid XM_030737569.1 XP_030593429.1 centrarchus 115785746 fsta follistatin a Archocentres flier cichlid XM_030737570.1 XP_030593430.1 centrarchus 115812709 fsta follistatin a Chanos chanos milkfish XM_030775201.1 XP_030631061.1 115866461 FST follistatin Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030881958.1 XP_030737818.1 whale 115866461 FST follistatin Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030881960.1 XP_030737820.1 whale 115866461 FST follistatin Globicephala melas long-finned pilot XM_030881961.1 XP_030737821.1 whale 115915700 FST follistatin Camarhynchus XM_030969318.1 XP_030825178.1 parvulus 116083576 Fst follistatin Mastomys coucha southern XM_031360361.1 XP_031216221.1 multimammate mouse 116083576 Fst follistatin Mastomys coucha southern XM_031360362.1 XP_031216222.1 multimammate mouse 116083576 Fst follistatin Mastomys coucha southern XM_031360363.1 XP_031216223.1 multimammate mouse 116239361 FST follistatin Phasianus Ring-necked XM_031609451.1 XP_031465311.1 colchicus pheasant 116462251 FST follistatin Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032144556.1 XP_032000447.1 116462251 FST follistatin Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032144557.1 XP_032000448.1 116462251 FST follistatin Hylobates moloch silvery gibbon XM_032144558.1 XP_032000449.1 116500689 FST follistatin Aythya fill igula tufted duck XM_032205869.1 XP_032061760.1 116500689 FST follistatin Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032205870.1 XP_032061761.1 116500689 FST follistatin Aythya fuligula tufted duck XM_032205871.1 XP_032061762.1 116506000 FST follistatin Thamnophis Western terrestrial XM_032213536.1 XP_032069427.1 elegans garter snake 116506000 FST follistatin Thamnophis Western terrestrial XM_032213537.1 XP_032069428.1 elegans garter snake 116506000 FST follistatin Thamnophis Western terrestrial XM_032213538.1 XP_032069429.1 elegans garter snake 116553487 FST follistatin Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032281029.1 XP_032136920.1 116553487 FST follistatin Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032281038.1 XP_032136929.1 116553487 FST follistatin Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032281047.1 XP_032136938.1 116553487 FST follistatin Sapajus apella tufted capuchin XM_032281058.1 XP_032136949.1 116586898 FST follistatin Mustela erminea ermine XM_032337421.1 XP_032193312.1 116586898 FST follistatin Mustela erminea ermine XM_032337422.1 XP_032193313.1 116586898 FST follistatin Mustela erminea ermine XM_032337423.1 XP_032193314.1 116586898 FST follistatin Mustela erminea ermine XM_032337424.1 XP_032193315.1 116626120 FST follistatin Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032395295.1 XP_032251186.1 116626120 FST follistatin Phoca vitulina harbor seal XM_032395296.1 XP_032251187.1 116689478 fsta follistatin a Etheostoma orangethroat darter XM_032516030.1 XP_032371921.1 spectabile 116689478 fsta follistatin a Etheostoma orangethroat darter XM_032516031.1 XP_032371922.1 spectabile 116729916 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032578794.1 XP_032434685.1 hellerii 116729916 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032578795.1 XP_032434686.1 hellerii 116729916 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032578796.1 XP_032434687.1 hellerii 116729916 fsta follistatin a Xiphophorus green swordtail XM_032578797.1 XP_032434688.1 hellerii 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629109.1 XP_032485000.1 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629110.1 XP_032485001.1 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629111.1 XP_032485002.1 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629112.1 XP_032485003.1 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629113.1 XP_032485004.1 116752270 FST follistatin Phocoena sinus vaquita XM_032629115.1 XP_032485006.1 116835779 FST follistatin Chelonoidis Abingdon island XM_032798914.1 XP_032654805.1 abingdonii giant tortoise 116864160 FST follistatin Lontra canadensis Northern American XM_032851458.1 XP_032707349.1 river otter 116864160 FST follistatin Lontra canadensis Northern American XM_032851459.1 XP_032707350.1 river otter 116864160 FST follistatin Lontra canadensis Northern American XM_032851460.1 XP_032707351.1 river otter 116864160 FST follistatin Lontra canadensis Northern American XM_032851461.1 XP_032707352.1 river otter 116895646 Fst follistatin Rattus rattus black rat XM_032896850.1 XP_032752741.1 116895646 Fst follistatin Rattus rattus black rat XM_032896851.1 XP_032752742.1 116941961 FST follistatin Petromyzon sea lamprey XM_032953394.1 XP_032809285.1 marinus 116941961 FST follistatin Petromyzon sea lamprey XM_032953395.1 XP_032809286.1 marinus 117011063 FST follistatin Catharus ustulatus Swainson's thrush XM_033086297.1 XP_032942188.1 117025363 FST follistatin Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033111270.1 XP_032967161.1 ferrumequinum bat 117025363 FST follistatin Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033111271.1 XP_032967162.1 ferrumequinum bat 117025363 FST follistatin Rhinolophus greater horseshoe XM_033111272.1 XP_032967163.1 ferrumequinum bat 117054873 FST follistatin Lacerta agilis XM_033164078.1 XP_033019969.1 117054873 FST follistatin Lacerta agilis XM_033164080.1 XP_033019971.1 117065108 FST follistatin Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033179549.1 XP_033035440.1 francoisi 117065108 FST follistatin Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033179550.1 XP_033035441.1 francoisi 117065108 FST follistatin Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033179551.1 XP_033035442.1 francoisi 117065108 FST follistatin Trachypithecus Francois's langur XM_033179552.1 XP_033035443.1 francoisi 117679180 FST follistatin Pantherophis XM_034440859.1 XP_034296750.1 guttatus 117679180 FST follistatin Pantherophis XM_034440860.1 XP_034296751.1 guttatus 117679180 FST follistatin Pantherophis XM_034440861.1 XP_034296752.1 guttatus 117679180 FST follistatin Pantherophis XM_034440862.1 XP_034296753.1 guttatus 117724011 Fst follistatin Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034523632.1 XP_034379523.1 niloticus 117724011 Fst follistatin Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034523633.1 XP_034379524.1 niloticus 117724011 Fst follistatin Arvicanthis African grass rat XM_034523634.1 XP_034379525.1 niloticus 117879432 FST follistatin Trachemys scripta XM_034774622.1 XP_034630513.1 elegans 117879432 FST follistatin Trachemys scripta XM_034774623.1 XP_034630514.1 elegans 118077143 FST follistatin Zootoca vivipara common lizard XM_035100573.1 XP_034956464.1 118077143 FST follistatin Zootoca vivipara common lizard XM_035100574.1 XP_034956465.1 118156338 FST follistatin Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck XM_035310322.1 XP_035166213.1 118156338 FST follistatin Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck XM_035310323.1 XP_035166214.1 118251466 FST follistatin Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035553585.1 XP_035409478.1 118251466 FST follistatin Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035553586.1 XP_035409479.1 118251466 FST follistatin Cygnus atratus black swan XM_035553587.1 XP_035409480.1 118549858 FST follistatin Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036114464.1 XP_035970357.1 118549858 FST follistatin Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036114466.1 XP_035970359.1 118549858 FST follistatin Halichoerus grypus gray seal XM_036114467.1 XP_035970360.1 118596331 Fst follistatin Onychomys southern XM_036207163.1 XP_036063056.1 torridus grasshopper mouse 118596331 Fst follistatin Onychomys southern XM_036207164.1 XP_036063057.1 torridus grasshopper mouse 118596331 Fst follistatin Onychomys southern XM_036207165.1 XP_036063058.1 torridus grasshopper mouse 118641955 FST follistatin Molossus molossus Pallas's mastiff bat XM_036279626.1 XP_036135519.1 118641955 FST follistatin Molossus molossus Pallas's mastiff bat XM_036279627.1 XP_036135520.1 118656266 FST follistatin Myotis myotis XM_036309355.1 XP_036165248.1 118656266 FST follistatin Myotis myotis XM_036309356.1 XP_036165249.1 118656266 FST follistatin Myotis myotis XM_036309357.1 XP_036165250.1 118699285 FST follistatin Molothrus ater XM_036403194.1 XP_036259087.1 118703454 FST follistatin Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036410405.1 XP_036266298.1 118703454 FST follistatin Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036410406.1 XP_036266299.1 118703454 FST follistatin Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036410407.1 XP_036266300.1 118703454 FST follistatin Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl's pipistrelle XM_036410408.1 XP_036266301.1 118831753 FST follistatin Trichosurus common brushtail XM_036739193.1 XP_036595088.1 vulpecula 118893332 FST follistatin Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036848751.1 XP_036704646.1 musculus 118893332 FST follistatin Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036848752.1 XP_036704647.1 musculus 118893332 FST follistatin Balaenoptera Blue whale XM_036848753.1 XP_036704648.1 musculus 118919939 FST follistatin Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036900378.1 XP_036756273.1 118919939 FST follistatin Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036900379.1 XP_036756274.1 118919939 FST follistatin Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036900380.1 XP_036756275.1 118919939 FST follistatin Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin XM_036900381.1 XP_036756276.1 118981683 FST follistatin Sturnira XM_037038502.1 XP_036894397.1 hondurensis 118981683 FST follistatin Sturnira XM_037038503.1 XP_036894398.1 hondurensis 118981683 FST follistatin Sturnira XM_037038505.1 XP_036894400.1 hondurensis 119049167 FST follistatin Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037145117.1 XP_037001012.1 jamaicensis eating bat 119049167 FST follistatin Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037145118.1 XP_037001013.1 jamaicensis eating bat 119049167 FST follistatin Artibeus Jamaican fruit- XM_037145119.1 XP_037001014.1 jamaicensis eating bat 119141609 FST follistatin Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037374080.1 XP_037229977.1 119141609 FST follistatin Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon XM_037374082.1 XP_037229979.1 119260869 FST follistatin Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037529971.1 XP_037385868.1 119260869 FST follistatin Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037529972.1 XP_037385869.1 119260869 FST follistatin Talpa occidentalis Iberian mole XM_037529973.1 XP_037385870.1 119506146 FST follistatin Choloepus southern two-toed XM_037799081.1 XP_037655009.1 didactylus sloth 119506146 FST follistatin Choloepus southern two-toed XM_037799082.1 XP_037655010.1 didactylus sloth 119855921 FST follistatin Dermochelys leatherback sea XM_038402867.1 XP_038258795.1 coriacea turtle 119944615 FST follistatin Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038765640.1 XP_038621568.1 aculeatus 119944615 FST follistatin Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038765641.1 XP_038621569.1 aculeatus 119944615 FST follistatin Tachyglossus Australian echidna XM_038765642.1 XP_038621570.1 aculeatus 120248050 FST follistatin Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039256213.1 XP_039112144.1 120248050 FST follistatin Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039256214.1 XP_039112145.1 120248050 FST follistatin Hyaena hyaena striped hyena XM_039256215.1 XP_039112146.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355886.1 XP_039211820.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355894.1 XP_039211828.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355902.1 XP_039211836.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355911.1 XP_039211845.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355921.1 XP_039211855.1 120313711 FST follistatin Crotalus tigris Tiger rattlesnake XM_039355930.1 XP_039211864.1 120407548 FST follistatin Mauremys reevesii Reeves's turtle XM_039543219.1 XP_039399153.1 120407548 FST follistatin Mauremys reevesii Reeves's turtle XM_039543220.1 XP_039399154.1 120407548 FST follistatin Mauremys reevesii Reeves's turtle XM_039543221.1 XP_039399155.1 120502493 FST follistatin Passer montanus Eurasian tree XM_039709974.1 XP_039565908.1 sparrow 120608169 FST follistatin Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039869925.1 XP_039725859.1 120608169 FST follistatin Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039869926.1 XP_039725860.1 120608169 FST follistatin Pteropus giganteus Indian flying fox XM_039869927.1 XP_039725861.1 120765889 FST follistatin Hirundo rustica Bam swallow XM_040091106.1 XP_039947040.1 120879300 FST follistatin Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040262265.1 XP_040118199.1 oryx 120879300 FST follistatin Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040262267.1 XP_040118201.1 oryx 120879300 FST follistatin Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040262268.1 XP_040118202.1 oryx 120879300 FST follistatin Oryx dammah scimitar-horned XM_040262269.1 XP_040118203.1 oryx 120928226 FST follistatin Rana temporaria common frog XM_040339335.1 XP_040195269.1 120928226 FST follistatin Rana temporaria common frog XM_040339340.1 XP_040195274.1 120992320 FST follistatin Bufo bufo common toad XM_040421232.1 XP_040277166.1 121081364 FST follistatin Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040580343.1 XP_040436277.1 121081364 FST follistatin Falco naumanni lesser kestrel XM_040580344.1 XP_040436278.1 121154655 FST follistatin Ochotona black-lipped pika XM_040977684.1 XP_040833618.1 curzoniae 121154655 FST follistatin Ochotona black-lipped pika XM_040977685.1 XP_040833619.1 curzoniae 121154655 FST follistatin Ochotona black-lipped pika XM_040977686.1 XP_040833620.1 curzoniae 121355465 FST follistatin Pyrgilauda rufous-necked XM_041470917.1 XP_041326851.1 ruficollis snowfinch 121455996 Fst follistatin Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041663795.1 XP_041519729.1 121455996 Fst follistatin Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041663796.1 XP_041519730.1 121455996 Fst follistatin Microtus oregoni creeping vole XM_041663797.1 XP_041519731.1 121664801 FST follistatin Corvus kubaryi Mariana crow XM_042028368.1 XP_041884302.1

In some embodiments, the optionally wherein (a) a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; (b) a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous; or (c) both (a) and (b). In some embodiments, where a portion of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene a sufficient or appropriate portion of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced such that expression of a melanocortin-4 receptor gene is decreased or eliminated. In some embodiments, where a portion of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous gene a sufficient or appropriate portion of the myostatin gene is replaced such that expression of a myostatin gene is decreased or eliminated.

Exogenous Gene Constructs

The exogenous gene can be introduced into the engineered fish by random integration or site-directed integration using any appropriate gene integration/recombinant engineering technique known in the art. In some embodiments, the gene construct is knocked in using a CRISPR-Cas mediated knock in technique. In some embodiments, the exogenous gene is introduced into the genome such that it is operably coupled to one or more endogenous regulatory elements (e.g., promoters and/or the like). For example, where the exogenous gene is inserted into an endogenous gene (e.g., myostatin and/or mc4-r) the exogenous gene is operably coupled to the promoter and/or other regulatory elements of the endogenous gene (e.g., myostatin and/or mc4-r). In some embodiments, the exogenous gene constructs can include a nucleic acid encoding an exogenous gene product operably coupled to one or more regulatory elements (e.g., promoters, enhancers, repressors, and/or the like). In some embodiments, the exogenous gene construct is contained in a vector or vector system. In some embodiments, the regulatory element is a ubiquitous promoter (e.g., a beta-actin promoter, elongation factor alpha promoter, CAG promoter, CMV promoter, SV40 promoter, and others). In some embodiments, the regulator element is an inducible promoter. Exemplary polynucleotide constructs, vector and vector systems, regulator elements, gene delivery and gene integration methods and techniques are described in greater detail elsewhere herein. One of ordinary skill in the art, in view of the description herein will appreciate how to configure and utilize such compositions and techniques to introduce one or more exogenous genes described herein into the engineered fish.

Additional exemplary methods of modifying fish, particularly catfish, are described in e.g., Dunham et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct;1(4-5):380-9; Su et al., Transgenic Res. 2015 Apr;24(2):333-52; Su et al., Theriogenology. 2015 Dec;84(9):1499-512; Quin et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2016 Apr;18(2):255-63; Li et al., Mol Genet Genomics. 2017 Jun;292(3):663-670; Li et al., Mar Drugs. 2017 May 31;15(6):155; Khalil et al., Sci Rep. 2017 Aug 4;7(1):7301; Elaswad et al., J Vis Exp. 2018 Jan 20;(131):56275; Li et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2018 Jun;20(3):324-342; Dunham et al., Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1867:201-214; Elaswad et al., Sci Rep. 2018 Nov 7;8(1):16499; Powers et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct; 1(4-5):301-8; Dunham et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 Jun;4(3):338-44; Zhang et al., Mol Reprod Dev. 1990 Jan;25(1):3-13; Powers et al., Biotechnology. 1991;16:307-24; Powers et al., Science. 1991 Nov 8;254(5033):779; Chen et al., Biotechnol Annu Rev. 1996;2:205-36; Abass et al., Sci Rep. 2022 Jan 14;12(1):740; Abass et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2021 Dec;23(6):870-880; Huang et al., Transgenic Res. 2021 Apr;30(2):185-200; and Simora et al., Sci Rep. 2020 Dec 17;10(1):22271.

Compositions and Methods of Making Engineered Fish

Engineered fish and fish cell(s) can be engineered using any suitable genetic modification technique or system. Exemplary systems, techniques and strategies are described below and elsewhere herein. Other suitable systems and approaches will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the description herein and are within the scope of the present description. Engineered fish cells and/or fish (i.e., engineered fish containing a modified myostatin gene, modified mc4-r gene, and/or one or more exogenous genes of the present disclosure) can be generated using appropriate techniques used to make genetically modified organisms, such as fish, particularly catfish. See also e.g., Dunham et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct;1(4-5):380-9; Su et al., Transgenic Res. 2015 Apr;24(2):333-52; Su et al., Theriogenology. 2015 Dec; 84(9):1499-512; Quin et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2016 Apr;18(2):255-63; Li et al., Mol Genet Genomics. 2017 Jun;292(3):663-670; Li et al., Mar Drugs. 2017 May 31;15(6):155; Khalil et al., Sci Rep. 2017 Aug 4;7(1):7301; Elaswad et al., J Vis Exp. 2018 Jan 20;(131):56275; Li et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2018 Jun;20(3):324-342; Dunham et al., Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1867:201-214; Elaswad et al., Sci Rep. 2018 Nov 7;8(1):16499; Powers et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct;1(4-5):301-8; Dunham et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 Jun;4(3):338-44; Zhang et al., Mol Reprod Dev. 1990 Jan;25(1):3-13; Powers et al., Biotechnology. 1991;16:307-24; Powers et al., Science. 1991 Nov 8;254(5033):779; Chen et al., Biotechnol Annu Rev. 1996;2:205-36; Abass et al., Sci Rep. 2022 Jan 14;12(1):740; Abass et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2021 Dec;23(6):870-880; Huang et al., Transgenic Res. 2021 Apr;30(2):185-200; and Simora et al., Sci Rep. 2020 Dec 17;10(1):22271, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the method of generating an engineered fish of the present disclosure includes delivering a genetic modifying system and/or other optional exogenous cargo polynucleotide and/or polypeptide and/or components thereof to a cell or cells to be modified. Delivery can occur in vivo, in vitro, ex vivo, or in situ. Exemplary delivery compositions, systems, and techniques are further described below and elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, a genetic modifying system can be used to introduce an exogenous or heterologous gene (such as a gene native to another species or organism or a native gene copy or variant that is in addition to a native copy or variant). In some embodiments, a genetic modifying system is used to introduce an exogenous an engineered gene construct to a cell. In some embodiments introduce an exogenous an engineered gene construct to a fish cell or embryo. In some embodiments, the genetic modification system can be used to perform gene editing. In some embodiments, the genetic modification system can be used to perform gene knock in and/or knock out. In some embodiments, the genetic modification system can be used to perform simultaneous gene knock in and knock out. In some embodiments, the genetic modification system can modify DNA (such as genomic DNA), or RNA (e.g., gene transcripts).

Exemplary Genetic Modification Systems

In certain embodiments, the genetic modification system includes a programmable nuclease system (e.g., a CRISPR (or CRISPR-Cas) system), a zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) system, a TALEN, a meganuclease), an RNAi system, transposon system, or a combination thereof. Various genetic modification systems have been used to modify fish cells and/or generate modified fish (including catfish), including CRISPR-Cas systems, ZFNs, TALENs, and others. See e.g., Dunham et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct;1(4-5):380-9; Su et al., Transgenic Res. 2015 Apr;24(2):333-52; Su et al., Theriogenology. 2015 Dec;84(9):1499-512; Quin et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2016 Apr;18(2):255-63; Li et al., Mol Genet Genomics. 2017 Jun;292(3):663-670; Li et al., Mar Drugs. 2017 May 31;15(6):155; Khalil et al., Sci Rep. 2017 Aug 4;7(1):7301; Elaswad et al., J Vis Exp. 2018 Jan 20;(131):56275; Li et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2018 Jun;20(3):324-342; Dunham et al., Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1867:201-214; Elaswad et al., Sci Rep. 2018 Nov 7;8(1):16499; Powers et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. 1992 Aug-Oct;1(4-5):301-8; Dunham et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2002 Jun;4(3):338-44; Zhang et al., Mol Reprod Dev. 1990 Jan;25(1):3-13; Powers et al., Biotechnology. 1991;16:307-24; Powers et al., Science. 1991 Nov 8;254(5033):779; Chen et al., Biotechnol Annu Rev. 1996;2:205-36; Abass et al., Sci Rep. 2022 Jan 14;12(1):740; Abass et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2021 Dec;23(6):870-880; Huang et al., Transgenic Res. 2021 Apr;30(2):185-200; and Simora et al., Sci Rep. 2020 Dec 17;10(1):22271, which are all incorporated by reference herein as if expressed in their entireties and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure. These and other suitable genetic modifying systems for fish, particurlary catfish, genetic modification are described in greater below and in e.g., the Working Examples herein.

CRISPR-Cas Systems

In some embodiments, the myostatin and/or mc-4r gene(s) is/are modified using a CRISPR-Cas system. An exemplary use of a CRISPR-Cas system to generate myostatin and/or mc-4r gene(s) deficient cell and organisms is shown in the Working Examples herein. In some embodiments, a CRISPR-Cas system can be used to knock in one or more exogenous genes (see e.g., Koch et al., 2018. Nat. Prot. 13:1465-1487, Ranawakage et al., 2021. Front. Cell. Dev. Biol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fce11.2020.598634; Fang et al., 2021, Neuroscience. eLife: 10e65202; Schumann et al. 112(33):10437-10442; Kimura et al., 2014. Sci Rep. 6545; Gratacap et al., BMC Biotech. 2020. Art. No. 35.; and de Vrieze et al., Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021. 22:9429, which are incorporated by reference herein and can be adapted for use with present desecription).

In general, a CRISPR-Cas or CRISPR system as used in herein and in documents, such as WO 2014/093622, refers collectively to transcripts and other elements involved in the expression of or directing the activity of CRISPR-associated (“Cas”) genes, including sequences encoding a Cas gene, a tracr (trans-activating CRISPR) sequence (e.g. tracrRNA or an active partial tracrRNA), a tracr-mate sequence (encompassing a “direct repeat” and a tracrRNA-processed partial direct repeat in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), a guide sequence (also referred to as a “spacer” in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), or “guide RNA(s)” as that term is herein used (e.g., RNA(s) to guide Cas, such as Cas9, e.g. CRISPR RNA and transactivating (tracr) RNA or a single guide RNA (sgRNA) (chimeric RNA)) or other sequences and transcripts from a CRISPR locus. In general, a CRISPR system is characterized by elements that promote the formation of a CRISPR complex at the site of a target sequence (also referred to as a protospacer in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system). See, e.g., Shmakov et al. (2015) “Discovery and Functional Characterization of Diverse Class 2 CRISPR-Cas Systems”, Molecular Cell, DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molce1.2015.10.008. CRISPR-Cas systems can be used to edit one or more nucleotides, remove one or more nucleotides, and/or delete one or more nucleotides.

Any suitable CRISPR-Cas system can be used in the context of the present disclosure to modify a myostatin, mc4-rpolynucleotide in a fish cell and/or introduce an exogenous gene as described elsewhere herein. In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Class 1 system. In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Class 2 system.

Class 1 Systems

In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Class 1 CRISPR-Cas system. In certain example embodiments, the Class 1 system may be Type I, Type III or Type IV Cas proteins as described in Makarova et al. “Evolutionary classification of CRISPR-Cas systems: a burst of class 2 and derived variants” Nature Reviews Microbiology, 18:67-81 (Feb 2020)., incorporated in its entirety herein by reference, and particularly as described in FIG. 1, p. 326; Koonin EV, Makarova K S. 2019 Origins and evolution of CRISPR-Cas systems. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 374: 20180087, DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0087, particularly at FIGS. 1 and 2. In some embodiments, the Class 1 CRISPR-Cas system is a subtype Type I-A, I-B, I-C, I-U, I-D, I-E, and I-F, Type IV-A and IV-B, and Type III-A, III-D, III-C, and III-B system. In some embodiments, the Class 1 CRISPR-Cas system is a variant system, such as a Type I-A, I-B, I-E, I-F and I-U variants, which can include variants carried by transposons and plasmids, including versions of subtype I-F encoded by a large family of Tn7-like transposon and smaller groups of Tn7-like transposons that encode similarly degraded subtype I-B systems. Peters et al., PNAS 114 (35) (2017); DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1709035114; see also, Makarova et al, the CRISPR Journal, v. 1, n5, FIG. 5.

Class 2 Systems

In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Class 2 CRISPR-Cas system. Class 2 systems are distinguished from Class 1 systems in that they have a single, large, multi-domain effector protein. In certain example embodiments, the Class 2 system is a Type II, Type V, or Type VI system, which are described in Makarova et al. “Evolutionary classification of CRISPR-Cas systems: a burst of class 2 and derived variants” Nature Reviews Microbiology, 18:67-81 (February 2020), incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Type II subtype, such as II-A, II-B, II-C1, or II-C2 system. In some embodiments, the Type II CRISPR-Cas system is a Cas9 system. In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Type V subtype, such as V-A, V-B1, V-B2, V-C, V-D, V-E, V-F1, V-F 1(V-U3), V-F2, V-F3, V-G, V-H, V-I, V-K (V-U5), V-U1, V-U2, or V-U4 system. In some embodiments, the Type V CRISPR-Cas system includes a Cas12a (Cpf1), Cas12b (C2c1), Cas12c (C2c3), Cas12d (CasY), Cas12e (CasX), Cas14, and/or Cas41). In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a Type VI subtype, such as a VI-A, VI-B1, VI-B2, VI-C, or VI-D system. In some embodiments, the Type VI CRISPR-Cas system includes a Cas13a (C2c2), Cas13b (Group 29/30), Cas13c, and/or Cas13d.

Guide RNAs

The CRISPR-Cas system described herein includes one or more guide RNAs (also referred interchangeably herein as “guide molecules” “guide polynucleotides” and “guide sequences”). The terms guide molecule, guide sequence and guide polynucleotide refer to polynucleotides capable of guiding Cas to a target genomic locus and are used interchangeably as in foregoing cited documents such as International Patent Publication No. WO 2014/093622. In general, a guide sequence is any polynucleotide sequence having sufficient complementarity with a target polynucleotide sequence to hybridize with the target sequence and direct sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the target sequence. The guide molecule can be a polynucleotide. The ability of a guide sequence (within a nucleic acid-targeting guide RNA) to direct sequence-specific binding of a nucleic acid-targeting complex to a target nucleic acid sequence may be assessed by any suitable assay. For example, the components of a nucleic acid-targeting CRISPR system sufficient to form a nucleic acid-targeting complex, including the guide sequence to be tested, may be provided to a host cell having the corresponding target nucleic acid sequence, such as by transfection with vectors encoding the components of the nucleic acid-targeting complex, followed by an assessment of preferential targeting (e.g., cleavage) within the target nucleic acid sequence, such as by Surveyor assay (Qui et al. 2004. BioTechniques. 36(4)702-707). Similarly, cleavage of a target nucleic acid sequence may be evaluated in a test tube by providing the target nucleic acid sequence, components of a nucleic acid-targeting complex, including the guide sequence to be tested and a control guide sequence different from the test guide sequence, and comparing binding or rate of cleavage at the target sequence between the test and control guide sequence reactions. Other assays are possible and will occur to those skilled in the art.

The guide molecules can be any polynucleotide sequence having sufficient complementarity with a target nucleic acid sequence to hybridize with the target nucleic acid sequence and direct sequence-specific binding of a nucleic acid-targeting complex to the target nucleic acid sequence. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity, when optimally aligned using a suitable alignment algorithm, can be about or more than about 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or more. Optimal alignment may be determined with the use of any suitable algorithm for aligning sequences, non-limiting examples of which include the Smith-Waterman algorithm, the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm, algorithms based on the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (e.g., the Burrows Wheeler Aligner), ClustalW, Clustal X, BLAT, Novoalign (Novocraft Technologies; available at www.novocraft.com), ELAND (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.), SOAP (available at soap.genomics.org.cn), and Maq (available at maq.sourceforge.net).

A guide sequence, and hence a nucleic acid-targeting guide, may be selected to target any target nucleic acid sequence. Target sequences are further discussed below.

In some embodiments, a nucleic acid-targeting guide is selected to reduce the degree secondary structure within the nucleic acid-targeting guide. In some embodiments, about or less than about 75%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, or fewer of the nucleotides of the nucleic acid-targeting guide participate in self-complementary base pairing when optimally folded. Optimal folding may be determined by any suitable polynucleotide folding algorithm. Some programs are based on calculating the minimal Gibbs free energy. An example of one such algorithm is mFold, as described by Zuker and Stiegler (Nucleic Acids Res. 9 (1981), 133-148). Another example folding algorithm is the online webserver RNAfold, developed at Institute for Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna, using the centroid structure prediction algorithm (see e.g., A. R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell 106(1): 23-24; and P A Carr and G M Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology 27(12): 1151-62).

In certain embodiments, a guide RNA or crRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of a direct repeat (DR) sequence and a guide sequence or spacer sequence. In certain embodiments, the guide RNA or crRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of a direct repeat sequence fused or linked to a guide sequence or spacer sequence. In certain embodiments, the direct repeat sequence may be located upstream (i.e., 5′) from the guide sequence or spacer sequence. In other embodiments, the direct repeat sequence may be located downstream (i.e., 3′) from the guide sequence or spacer sequence.

In certain embodiments, the crRNA comprises a stem loop, preferably a single stem loop. In certain embodiments, the direct repeat sequence forms a stem loop, preferably a single stem loop.

In certain embodiments, the spacer length of the guide RNA is from 15 to 35 nt. In certain embodiments, the spacer length of the guide RNA is at least 15 nucleotides. In certain embodiments, the spacer length is from 15 to 17 nt, e.g., 15, 16, or 17 nt, from 17 to 20 nt, e.g., 17, 18, 19, or 20 nt, from 20 to 24 nt, e.g., 20, 21, 22, 23, or 24 nt, from 23 to 25 nt, e.g., 23, 24, or 25 nt, from 24 to 27 nt, e.g., 24, 25, 26, or 27 nt, from 27 to 30 nt, e.g., 27, 28, 29, or 30 nt, from 30 to 35 nt, e.g., 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35 nt, or 35 nt or longer.

The “tracrRNA” sequence or analogous terms includes any polynucleotide sequence that has sufficient complementarity with a crRNA sequence to hybridize. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between the tracrRNA sequence and crRNA sequence along the length of the shorter of the two when optimally aligned is about or more than about 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or higher. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is about or more than about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence and crRNA sequence are contained within a single transcript, such that hybridization between the two produces a transcript having a secondary structure, such as a hairpin.

In general, degree of complementarity is with reference to the optimal alignment of the sca sequence and tracr sequence, along the length of the shorter of the two sequences. Optimal alignment may be determined by any suitable alignment algorithm and may further account for secondary structures, such as self-complementarity within either the sca sequence or tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between the tracr sequence and sca sequence along the length of the shorter of the two when optimally aligned is about or more than about 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or higher.

In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between a guide sequence and its corresponding target sequence can be about or more than about 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or 100%; a guide or RNA or sgRNA can be about or more than about 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, or more nucleotides in length; or guide or RNA or sgRNA can be less than about 75, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 12, or fewer nucleotides in length; and tracr RNA can be 30 or 50 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between a guide sequence and its corresponding target sequence is greater than 94.5% or 95% or 95.5% or 96% or 96.5% or 97% or 97.5% or 98% or 98.5% or 99% or 99.5% or 99.9%, or 100%. Off target is less than 100% or 99.9% or 99.5% or 99% or 99% or 98.5% or 98% or 97.5% or 97% or 96.5% or 96% or 95.5% or 95% or 94.5% or 94% or 93% or 92% or 91% or 90% or 89% or 88% or 87% or 86% or 85% or 84% or 83% or 82% or 81% or 80% complementarity between the sequence and the guide, with it being advantageous that off target is 100% or 99.9% or 99.5% or 99% or 99% or 98.5% or 98% or 97.5% or 97% or 96.5% or 96% or 95.5% or 95% or 94.5% complementarity between the sequence and the guide.

In some embodiments, the guide RNA (capable of guiding Cas to a target locus) can include (1) a guide sequence capable of hybridizing to a genomic target locus in the eukaryotic cell; (2) a tracr sequence; and (3) a tracr mate sequence. All (1) to (3) may reside in a single RNA, i.e., an sgRNA (arranged in a 5′ to 3′ orientation), or the tracr RNA may be a different RNA than the RNA containing the guide and tracr sequence. The tracr hybridizes to the tracr mate sequence and directs the CRISPR/Cas complex to the target sequence. Where the tracr RNA is on a different RNA than the RNA containing the guide and tracr sequence, the length of each RNA may be optimized to be shortened from their respective native lengths, and each may be independently chemically modified to protect from degradation by cellular RNase or otherwise increase stability.

Many modifications to guide sequences are known in the art and within the spirit and scope of this disclosure. Various modifications may be used to increase the specificity of binding to the target sequence and/or increase the activity of the Cas protein and/or reduce off-target effects. Example guide sequence modifications are described in International Patent Application WO2020033601, specifically paragraphs [0178]-[0333]. which is incorporated herein by reference.

Target Sequences, PAMs, and PFSs

In the context of formation of a CRISPR complex, “target sequence” refers to a sequence to which a guide sequence is designed to have complementarity, where hybridization between a target sequence and a guide sequence promotes the formation of a CRISPR complex. A target sequence may comprise RNA polynucleotides. The term “target RNA” refers to an RNA polynucleotide being or including the target sequence. Likewise, a “target polynucleotide” as used in this context herein refers to a polynucleotide sequence being or including the target sequence for a guide polynucleotide. In other words, the target polynucleotide can be a polynucleotide or a part of a polynucleotide to which a part of the guide sequence is designed to have complementarity with and to which the effector function mediated by the complex comprising the CRISPR effector protein and a guide molecule is to be directed. In some embodiments, a target sequence is located in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell.

The guide sequence can specifically bind a target sequence in a target polynucleotide. The target polynucleotide can be DNA. The target polynucleotide can be RNA. The target polynucleotide can have one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc. or more) target sequences. The target polynucleotide can be on a vector. The target polynucleotide can be genomic DNA. The target polynucleotide can be episomal. Other forms of the target polynucleotide are described elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, the target sequence may be a sequence within an RNA molecule selected from the group consisting of messenger RNA (mRNA), pre-mRNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), micro-RNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA), double stranded RNA (dsRNA), non-coding RNA (ncRNA), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and small cytoplasmatic RNA (scRNA). In some preferred embodiments, the target sequence (also referred to herein as a target polynucleotide) may be a sequence within an RNA molecule selected from the group consisting of mRNA, pre-mRNA, and rRNA. In some preferred embodiments, the target sequence may be a sequence within an RNA molecule selected from the group consisting of ncRNA, and lncRNA. In some more preferred embodiments, the target sequence may be a sequence within an mRNA molecule or a pre-mRNA molecule.

PAM and PFS Elements

PAM elements are sequences that can be recognized and bound by Cas proteins. Cas proteins/effector complexes can then unwind the dsDNA at a position adjacent to the PAM element. It will be appreciated that Cas proteins and systems that include them that target RNA do not require PAM sequences (Marraffini et al. 2010. Nature. 463:568-571). Instead, many rely on PFSs, which are discussed elsewhere herein. In certain embodiments, the target sequence should be associated with a PAM (protospacer adjacent motif) or PFS (protospacer flanking sequence or site), that is, a short sequence recognized by the CRISPR complex. Depending on the nature of the CRISPR-Cas protein, the target sequence should be selected, such that its complementary sequence in the DNA duplex (also referred to herein as the non-target sequence) is upstream or downstream of the PAM. In the embodiments, the complementary sequence of the target sequence is downstream or 3′ of the PAM or upstream or 5′ of the PAM. The precise sequence and length requirements for the PAM differ depending on the Cas protein used, but PAMs are typically 2-5 base pair sequences adjacent the protospacer (that is, the target sequence). Examples of the natural PAM sequences for different Cas proteins are provided herein below and the skilled person will be able to identify further PAM sequences for use with a given Cas protein.

The ability to recognize different PAM sequences depends on the Cas polypeptide(s) included in the system. See e.g., Gleditzsch et al. 2019. RNA Biology. 16(4):504-517. Table 29 (from Gleditzsch et al. 2019) below shows several Cas polypeptides and the PAM sequence they recognize.

TABLE 29 Example PAM Sequences Cas Protein PAM Sequence SpCas9 NGG/NRG SaCas9 NGRRT or NGRRN NmeCas9 NNNNGATT CjCas9 NNNNRYAC StCas9 NNAGAAW Cas12a (Cpf1) TTTV (including LbCpf1 and AsCpf1) Cas12b (C2c1) TTT, TTA, and TTC Cas12c (C2c3) TA Cas12d (CasY) TA Cas12e (CasX) 5′-TTCN-3′ Sequences are provided using IUPAC nucleotide single letter codes

In a preferred embodiment, the CRISPR effector protein may recognize a 3′ PAM. In certain embodiments, the CRISPR effector protein may recognize a 3′ PAM which is 5′H, wherein H is A, C or U.

Further, engineering of the PAM Interacting (PI) domain on the Cas protein may allow programming of PAM specificity, improve target site recognition fidelity, and increase the versatility of the CRISPR-Cas protein, for example as described for Cas9 in Kleinstiver BP et al. Engineered CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases with altered PAM specificities. Nature. 2015 Jul 23;523(7561):481-5. doi: 10.1038/nature14592. As further detailed herein, the skilled person will understand that Cas13 proteins may be modified analogously. Gao et al, “Engineered Cpf1 Enzymes with Altered PAM Specificities,” bioRxiv 091611; doi: dx.doi.org/10.1101/091611 (Dec. 4, 2016). Doench et al. 2014 Nat Biotechnol. 2014 Dec;32(12):1262-7 created a pool of sgRNAs, tiling across all possible target sites of a panel of six endogenous mouse and three endogenous human genes and quantitatively assessed their ability to produce null alleles of their target gene by antibody staining and flow cytometry. Doench et al. can demonstrate that optimization of the PAM improved activity and also provided an on-line tool for designing sgRNAs. Such approaches can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

PAM sequences can be identified in a polynucleotide using an appropriate design tool, which are commercially available as well as online. Such freely available tools include, but are not limited to, CRISPRFinder and CRISPRTarget. Mojica et al. 2009. Microbiol. 155(Pt. 3):733-740; Atschul et al. 1990. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410; Biswass et al. 2013 RNA Biol. 10:817-827; and Grissa et al. 2007. Nucleic Acid Res. 35:W52-57. Experimental approaches to PAM identification can include, but are not limited to, plasmid depletion assays (Jiang et al. 2013. Nat. Biotechnol. 31:233-239; Esvelt et al. 2013. Nat. Methods. 10:1116-1121; Kleinstiver et al. 2015. Nature. 523:481-485), screened by a high-throughput in vivo model called PAM-SCNAR (Pattanayak et al. 2013. Nat. Biotechnol. 31:839-843 and Leenay et al. 2016.Mol. Cell. 16:253), and negative screening (Zetsche et al. 2015. Cell. 163:759-771).

As previously mentioned, CRISPR-Cas systems that target RNA do not typically rely on PAM sequences. Instead, such systems typically recognize protospacer flanking sites (PFSs) instead of PAMs Thus, Type VI CRISPR-Cas systems typically recognize protospacer flanking sites (PFSs) instead of PAMs. PFSs represents an analogue to PAMs for RNA targets. Type VI CRISPR-Cas systems employ a Cas13. Some Cas13 proteins analyzed to date, such as Cas13a (C2c2) identified from Leptotrichia shahii (LShCAs13a) have a specific discrimination against G at the 3′ end of the target RNA. The presence of a C at the corresponding crRNA repeat site can indicate that nucleotide pairing at this position is rejected. However, some Cas13 proteins (e.g., LwaCAs13a and PspCas13b) do not seem to have a PFS preference. See e.g., Gleditzsch et al. 2019. RNA Biology. 16(4):504-517.

Some Type VI proteins, such as subtype B, have 5′-recognition of D (G, T, A) and a 3′-motif requirement of NAN or NNA. One example is the Cas13b protein identified in Bergeyella zoohelcum (BzCas13b). See e.g., Gleditzsch et al. 2019. RNA Biology. 16(4):504-517.

Overall Type VI CRISPR-Cas systems appear to have less restrictive rules for substrate (e.g., target sequence) recognition than those that target DNA (e.g., Type V and type II).

Nuclear Targeting and Transportation Sequences

For modification of nuclear located polynucleotides including, but not limited to, genomic DNA one or more components of the CRISPR-Cas system can include one or more sequences or signals for nucleus targeting and/or transportation. Although these are discussed with specific reference to CRISPR-Cas systems, such sequences and signals can be applied to other genetic modification systems or components thereof discussed elsewhere herein.

Such sequence may facilitate the one or more components in the composition for targeting a sequence within a cell. In order to improve targeting of the CRISPR-Cas protein and/or the nucleotide deaminase protein or catalytic domain thereof used in the methods of the present disclosure to the nucleus, it may be advantageous to provide one or both of these components with one or more nuclear localization sequences (NLSs).

In some embodiments, the NLSs used in the context of the present disclosure are heterologous to the proteins. Non-limiting examples of NLSs include an NLS sequence derived from: the NLS of the SV40 virus large T-antigen, having the amino acid sequence PKKKRKV (SEQ ID NO: 35) or PKKKRKVEAS (SEQ ID NO: 36); the NLS from nucleoplasmin (e.g., the nucleoplasmin bipartite NLS with the sequence KRPAATKKAGQAKKKK (SEQ ID NO: 37)); the c-myc NLS having the amino acid sequence PAAKRVKLD (SEQ ID NO: 38) or RQRRNELKRSP (SEQ ID NO: 39); the hRNPA1 M9 NLS having the sequence NQSSNFGPMKGGNFGGRSSGPYGGGGQYFAKPRNQGGY (SEQ ID NO: 40); the sequence RMRIZFKNKGKDTAELRRRRVEVSVELRKAKKDEQILKRRNV (SEQ ID NO: 41) of the IBB domain from importin-alpha; the sequences VSRKRPRP (SEQ ID NO: 42) and PPKKARED (SEQ ID NO: 43) of the myoma T protein; the sequence PQPKKKPL (SEQ ID NO: 44) of human p53; the sequence SALIKKKKKMAP (SEQ ID NO: 45) of mouse c-abl IV; the sequences DRLRR (SEQ ID NO: 46) and PKQKKRK (SEQ ID NO: 47) of the influenza virus NS1; the sequence RKLKKKIKKL (SEQ ID NO: 48) of the Hepatitis virus delta antigen; the sequence REKKKFLKRR (SEQ ID NO: 49) of the mouse Mx1 protein; the sequence KRKGDEVDGVDEVAKKKSKK (SEQ ID NO: 50) of the human poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; and the sequence RKCLQAGMNLEARKTKK (SEQ ID NO: 51) of the steroid hormone receptors (human) glucocorticoid. In general, the one or more NLSs are of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of the DNA-targeting Cas protein in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. In general, strength of nuclear localization activity may derive from the number of NLSs in the CRISPR-Cas protein, the particular NLS(s) used, or a combination of these factors. Detection of accumulation in the nucleus may be performed by any suitable technique. For example, a detectable marker may be fused to the nucleic acid-targeting protein, such that location within a cell may be visualized, such as in combination with a means for detecting the location of the nucleus (e.g., a stain specific for the nucleus such as DAPI). Cell nuclei may also be isolated from cells, the contents of which may then be analyzed by any suitable process for detecting protein, such as immunohistochemistry, Western blot, or enzyme activity assay. Accumulation in the nucleus may also be determined indirectly, such as by an assay for the effect of nucleic acid-targeting complex formation (e.g., assay for deaminase activity) at the target sequence, or assay for altered gene expression activity affected by DNA-targeting complex formation and/or DNA-targeting), as compared to a control not exposed to the CRISPR-Cas protein and deaminase protein or exposed to a CRISPR-Cas and/or deaminase protein lacking the one or more NLSs.

The CRISPR-Cas and/or nucleotide deaminase proteins may be provided with 1 or more, such as with, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more heterologous NLSs. In some embodiments, the proteins comprises about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near the amino-terminus, about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more NLSs at or near the carboxy-terminus, or a combination of these (e.g., zero or at least one or more NLS at the amino-terminus and zero or at one or more NLS at the carboxy terminus). When more than one NLS is present, each may be selected independently of the others, such that a single NLS may be present in more than one copy and/or in combination with one or more other NLSs present in one or more copies. In some embodiments, an NLS is considered near the N- or C-terminus when the nearest amino acid of the NLS is within about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more amino acids along the polypeptide chain from the N- or C-terminus. In preferred embodiments of the CRISPR-Cas proteins, an NLS attached to the C-terminal of the protein.

In CRISPR-Cas systems including a deaminase, the CRISPR-Cas protein and the deaminase protein are delivered to the cell or expressed within the cell as separate proteins. In these embodiments, each of the CRISPR-Cas and deaminase protein can be provided with one or more NLSs as described herein. In certain embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas and deaminase proteins are delivered to the cell or expressed with the cell as a fusion protein. In these embodiments one or both of the CRISPR-Cas and deaminase protein is provided with one or more NLSs. Where the nucleotide deaminase is fused to an adaptor protein (such as MS2) as described above, the one or more NLS can be provided on the adaptor protein, provided that this does not interfere with aptamer binding. In particular embodiments, the one or more NLS sequences may also function as linker sequences between the nucleotide deaminase and the CRISPR-Cas protein.

In some embodiments, a component of the CRISPR-Cas system includes a one or more nuclear export signals (NES), one or more one or more nuclear localization signals (NLS), or any combinations thereof. In some cases, the NES may be an HIV Rev NES. In certain cases, the NES may be MAPK NES. When the component is a protein, the NES or NLS may be at the C terminus of component. In some embodiments, the NES or NLS may be at the N terminus of component. In some examples, the Cas protein and optionally said nucleotide deaminase protein or catalytic domain thereof comprise one or more heterologous nuclear export signal(s) (NES(s)) or nuclear localization signal(s) (NLS(s)), preferably an HIV Rev NES or MAPK NES, preferably C-terminal.

Donor Templates

In some embodiments the CRISPR-Cas system includes a donor template, e.g., a recombination template. A template may be a component of another vector as described herein, contained in a separate vector, or provided as a separate polynucleotide. In some embodiments, a recombination template is designed to serve as a template in homologous recombination, such as within or near a target sequence nicked or cleaved by a nucleic acid-targeting effector protein as a part of a nucleic acid-targeting complex.

In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid alters the sequence of the target position. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid results in the incorporation of a modified, or non-naturally occurring base into the target nucleic acid.

The template sequence may undergo a breakage mediated or catalyzed recombination with the target sequence. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid may include sequence that corresponds to a site on the target sequence that is cleaved by a Cas protein mediated cleavage event. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid may include a sequence that corresponds to both, a first site on the target sequence that is cleaved in a first Cas protein mediated event, and a second site on the target sequence that is cleaved in a second Cas protein mediated event.

In certain embodiments, the template nucleic acid can include a sequence which results in an alteration in the coding sequence of a translated sequence, e.g., one which results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in a protein product, e.g., transforming a mutant allele into a wild type allele, transforming a wild type allele into a mutant allele, and/or introducing a stop codon, insertion of an amino acid residue, deletion of an amino acid residue, or a nonsense mutation. In certain embodiments, the template nucleic acid can include a sequence which results in an alteration in a non-coding sequence, e.g., an alteration in an exon or in a 5′ or 3′ non-translated or non-transcribed region. Such alterations include an alteration in a control element, e.g., a promoter, enhancer, and an alteration in a cis-acting or trans-acting control element.

A template nucleic acid having homology with a target position in a target gene may be used to alter the structure of a target sequence. The template sequence may be used to alter an unwanted structure, e.g., an unwanted or mutant nucleotide. The template nucleic acid may include a sequence which, when integrated, results in decreasing the activity of a positive control element; increasing the activity of a positive control element; decreasing the activity of a negative control element; increasing the activity of a negative control element; decreasing the expression of a gene; increasing the expression of a gene; increasing resistance to a disorder or disease; increasing resistance to viral entry; correcting a mutation or altering an unwanted amino acid residue conferring, increasing, abolishing or decreasing a biological property of a gene product, e.g., increasing the enzymatic activity of an enzyme, or increasing the ability of a gene product to interact with another molecule.

The template nucleic acid may include a sequence which results in a change in sequence of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12 or more nucleotides of the target sequence.

A template polynucleotide may be of any suitable length, such as about or more than about 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500, 1000, or more nucleotides in length. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid may be 20+/− 10, 30+/− 10, 40+/− 10, 50+/− 10, 60+/− 10, 70+/− 10, 80+/− 10, 90+/− 10, 100+/− 10, 1 10+/− 10, 120+/− 10, 130+/− 10, 140+/− 10, 150+/− 10, 160+/− 10, 170+/− 10, 1 80+/− 10, 190+/− 10, 200+/− 10, 210+/− 10, of 220+/− 10 nucleotides in length. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid may be 30+/−20, 40+/−20, 50+/−20, 60+/−20, 70+/−20, 80+/−20, 90+/−20, 100+/−20, 1 10+/−20, 120+/−20, 130+/−20, 140+/−20, I 50+/−20, 160+/−20, 170+/−20, 180+/−20, 190+/−20, 200+/−20, 210+/−20, of 220+/−20 nucleotides in length. In an embodiment, the template nucleic acid is 10 to 1,000, 20 to 900, 30 to 800, 40 to 700, 50 to 600, 50 to 500, 50 to 400, 50 to300, 50 to 200, or 50 to 100 nucleotides in length.

In some embodiments, the template polynucleotide is complementary to a portion of a polynucleotide comprising the target sequence. When optimally aligned, a template polynucleotide might overlap with one or more nucleotides of a target sequences (e.g., about or more than about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 or more nucleotides). In some embodiments, when a template sequence and a polynucleotide comprising a target sequence are optimally aligned, the nearest nucleotide of the template polynucleotide is within about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 5000, 10000, or more nucleotides from the target sequence.

The exogenous polynucleotide template comprises a sequence to be integrated (e.g., a mutated gene). The sequence for integration may be a sequence endogenous or exogenous to the cell. Examples of a sequence to be integrated include polynucleotides encoding a protein or a non-coding RNA (e.g., a microRNA). Thus, the sequence for integration may be operably linked to an appropriate control sequence or sequences. Alternatively, the sequence to be integrated may provide a regulatory function.

An upstream or downstream sequence may comprise from about 20 bp to about 2500 bp, for example, about 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2400, or 2500 bp. In some methods, the exemplary upstream or downstream sequence have about 200 bp to about 2000 bp, about 600 bp to about 1000 bp, or more particularly about 700 bp to about 1000.

An upstream or downstream sequence may comprise from about 20 bp to about 2500 bp, for example, about 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2400, or 2500 bp. In some methods, the exemplary upstream or downstream sequence have about 200 bp to about 2000 bp, about 600 bp to about 1000 bp, or more particularly about 700 bp to about 1000

In certain embodiments, one or both homology arms may be shortened to avoid including certain sequence repeat elements. For example, a 5′ homology arm may be shortened to avoid a sequence repeat element. In other embodiments, a 3′ homology arm may be shortened to avoid a sequence repeat element. In some embodiments, both the 5′ and the 3′ homology arms may be shortened to avoid including certain sequence repeat elements.

In some embodiments, the exogenous polynucleotide template may further comprise a marker. Such a marker may make it easy to screen for targeted integrations. Examples of suitable markers include restriction sites, fluorescent proteins, or selectable markers. The exogenous polynucleotide template of the disclosure can be constructed using recombinant techniques (see, for example, Sambrook et al., 2001 and Ausubel et al., 1996).

In certain embodiments, a template nucleic acid for correcting a mutation may designed for use as a single-stranded oligonucleotide. When using a single-stranded oligonucleotide, 5′ and 3′ homology arms may range up to about 200 base pairs (bp) in length, e.g., at least 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, or 200 by in length.

Suzuki et al. describe in vivo genome editing via CRISPR/Cas9 mediated homology-independent targeted integration (2016, Nature 540:144-149). The strategy and techniques Of Suzuki et al. can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Specialized Cas-based Systems

Dead Cas (dCas) Systems

In some embodiments, the system is a Cas-based system that is capable of performing a specialized function or activity. For example, the Cas protein may be fused, operably coupled to, or otherwise associated with one or more functionals domains. In certain example embodiments, the Cas protein may be a catalytically dead Cas protein (“dCas”) and/or have nickase activity. A nickase is a Cas protein that cuts only one strand of a double stranded target. In such embodiments, the dCas or nickase provide a sequence specific targeting functionality that delivers the functional domain to or proximate a target sequence. Example functional domains that may be fused to, operably coupled to, or otherwise associated with a Cas protein can be or include, but are not limited to a nuclear localization signal (NLS) domain, a nuclear export signal (NES) domain, a translational activation domain, a transcriptional activation domain (e.g. VP64, p65, MyoD1, HSF1, RTA, and SETT/9), a translation initiation domain, a transcriptional repression domain (e.g., a KRAB domain, NuE domain, NcoR domain, and a SID domain such as a SID4X domain), a nuclease domain (e.g., FokI), a histone modification domain (e.g., a histone acetyltransferase), a light inducible/controllable domain, a chemically inducible/controllable domain, a transposase domain, a homologous recombination machinery domain, a recombinase domain, an integrase domain, and combinations thereof. Methods for generating catalytically dead Cas9 or a nickase Cas9 (WO 2014/204725, Ran et al. Cell. 2013 September 12; 154(6):1380-1389), Cas12 (Liu et al. Nature Communications, 8, 2095 (2017), and Cas13 (International Patent Publication Nos. WO2019/005884 and WO2019/060746) are known in the art and incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the functional domains can have one or more of the following activities: methylase activity, demethylase activity, translation activation activity, translation initiation activity, translation repression activity, transcription activation activity, transcription repression activity, transcription release factor activity, histone modification activity, nuclease activity, single-strand RNA cleavage activity, double-strand RNA cleavage activity, single-strand DNA cleavage activity, double-strand DNA cleavage activity, molecular switch activity, chemical inducibility, light inducibility, and nucleic acid binding activity. In some embodiments, the one or more functional domains may comprise epitope tags or reporters. Non-limiting examples of epitope tags include histidine (His) tags, V5 tags, FLAG tags, influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tags, Myc tags, VSV-G tags, and thioredoxin (Trx) tags. Examples of reporters include, but are not limited to, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) beta-galactosidase, beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), HcRed, DsRed, cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and auto-fluorescent proteins including blue fluorescent protein (BFP).

The one or more functional domain(s) may be positioned at, near, and/or in proximity to a terminus of the effector protein (e.g., a Cas protein). In embodiments having two or more functional domains, each of the two can be positioned at or near or in proximity to a terminus of the effector protein (e.g., a Cas protein). In some embodiments, such as those where the functional domain is operably coupled to the effector protein, the one or more functional domains can be tethered or linked via a suitable linker (including, but not limited to, Gly Ser linkers) to the effector protein (e.g., a Cas protein). When there is more than one functional domain, the functional domains can be same or different. In some embodiments, all the functional domains are the same. In some embodiments, all of the functional domains are different from each other. In some embodiments, at least two of the functional domains are different from each other. In some embodiments, at least two of the functional domains are the same as each other.

Other suitable functional domains can be found, for example, in International Patent Publication No. WO 2019/018423, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Split-Cas Systems

In some embodiments, the CRISPR-Cas system is a split CRISPR-Cas system. See e.g., Zetche et al., 2015. Nat. Biotechnol. 33(2): 139-142 and International Patent Publication WO2019/018423, the compositions and techniques of which can be used in and/or adapted for use with the present invention. Split CRISPR-Cas proteins are set forth herein and in documents incorporated herein by reference in further detail herein. In certain embodiments, each part of a split CRISPR protein are attached to a member of a specific binding pair, and when bound with each other, the members of the specific binding pair maintain the parts of the CRISPR protein in proximity. In certain embodiments, each part of a split CRISPR protein is associated with an inducible binding pair. An inducible binding pair is one which is capable of being switched “on” or “off” by a protein or small molecule that binds to both members of the inducible binding pair. In some embodiments, CRISPR proteins may preferably split between domains, leaving domains intact. In particular embodiments, said Cas split domains (e.g., RuvC and HNH domains in the case of Cas9) can be simultaneously or sequentially introduced into the cell such that said split Cas domain(s) process the target nucleic acid sequence in the algae cell. The reduced size of the split Cas compared to the wildtype Cas allows other methods of delivery of the systems to the cells, such as the use of cell penetrating peptides as described herein.

DNA and RNA Base Editing Systems

In some embodiments, a polynucleotide of the present disclosure described elsewhere herein is modified using a base editing system. In some embodiments, a Cas protein is connected or fused to a nucleotide deaminase. Thus, in some embodiments the Cas-based system can be a base editing system. As used herein, “base editing” refers generally to the process of polynucleotide modification via a CRISPR-Cas-based or Cas-based system that does not include excising nucleotides to make the modification. Base editing can convert base pairs at precise locations without generating excess undesired editing byproducts that can be made using traditional CRISPR-Cas systems.

In certain example embodiments, the nucleotide deaminase may be a DNA base editor used in combination with a DNA binding Cas protein such as, but not limited to, Class 2 Type II and Type V systems. Two classes of DNA base editors are generally known: cytosine base editors (CBEs) and adenine base editors (ABEs). CBEs convert a C•G base pair into a T•A base pair (Komor et al. 2016. Nature. 533:420-424; Nishida et al. 2016. Science. 353; and Li et al. Nat. Biotech. 36:324-327) and ABEs convert an A•T base pair to a G•C base pair. Collectively, CBEs and ABEs can mediate all four possible transition mutations (C to T, A to G, T to C, and G to A). Rees and Liu. 2018.Nat. Rev. Genet. 19(12): 770-788, particularly at FIGS. 1 b, 2 a-2 c, 3 a-3 f, and Table 1. In some embodiments, the base editing system includes a CBE and/or an ABE. In some embodiments, a polynucleotide of the present invention described elsewhere herein can be modified using a base editing system. Rees and Liu. 2018. Nat. Rev. Gent. 19(12):770-788. Base editors also generally do not need a DNA donor template and/or rely on homology-directed repair. Komor et al. 2016. Nature. 533:420-424; Nishida et al. 2016. Science. 353; and Gaudeli et al. 2017. Nature. 551:464-471. Upon binding to a target locus in the DNA, base pairing between the guide RNA of the system and the target DNA strand leads to displacement of a small segment of ssDNA in an “R-loop”. Nishimasu et al. Cell. 156:935-949. DNA bases within the ssDNA bubble are modified by the enzyme component, such as a deaminase. In some systems, the catalytically disabled Cas protein can be a variant or modified Cas can have nickase functionality and can generate a nick in the non-edited DNA strand to induce cells to repair the non-edited strand using the edited strand as a template. Komor et al. 2016. Nature. 533:420-424; Nishida et al. 2016. Science. 353; and Gaudeli et al. 2017. Nature. 551:464-471, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Other Example Type V base editing systems are described in International Patent Publication Nos. WO2018/213708, WO2018/213726, WO2019126709, WO2019126716, and WO2019126762, each of which is incorporated herein by reference and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

In certain example embodiments, the base editing system may be an RNA base editing system. As with DNA base editors, a nucleotide deaminase capable of converting nucleotide bases may be fused to a Cas protein. However, in these embodiments, the Cas protein will need to be capable of binding RNA. Example RNA binding Cas proteins include, but are not limited to, RNA-binding Cas9s such as Francisella novicida Cas9 (“FnCas9”), and Class 2 Type VI Cas systems. The nucleotide deaminase may be a cytidine deaminase or an adenosine deaminase, or an adenosine deaminase engineered to have cytidine deaminase activity. In certain example embodiments, the RNA base editor may be used to delete or introduce a post-translation modification site in the expressed mRNA. In contrast to DNA base editors, whose edits are permanent in the modified cell, RNA base editors can provide edits where finer, temporal control may be needed, for example in modulating a particular immune response. Example Type VI RNA-base editing systems are described in Cox et al. 2017. Science 358: 1019-1027, International Patent Publication Nos. WO 2019/005884, WO2019/005886, and WO2019/071048, WO2019126709, which are incorporated herein by reference and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure. An example FnCas9 system that may be adapted for RNA base editing purposes is described in International Patent Publication No. WO2016/106236, which is incorporated herein by reference and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

An example method for delivery of base-editing systems, including use of a split-intein approach to divide CBE and ABE into reconstitutable halves, is described in Levy et al. Nature Biomedical Engineering doi.org/10.1038/s41441-019-0505-5 (2019), which is incorporated herein by reference and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Prime Editor Systems

In some embodiments, a polynucleotide of the present disclosure described elsewhere herein is modified using a prime editing system. See e.g., Anzalone et al. 2019. Nature. 576: 149-157. Like base editing systems, prime editing systems can be capable of targeted modification of a polynucleotide without generating double stranded breaks and does not require donor templates. Further prime editing systems can be capable of all 12 possible combination swaps. Prime editing can operate via a “search-and-replace” methodology and can mediate targeted insertions, deletions, all 12 possible base-to-base conversion and combinations thereof. Generally, a prime editing system, as exemplified by PE1, PE2, and PE3 (Id.), can include a reverse transcriptase fused or otherwise coupled or associated with an RNA-programmable nickase and a prime-editing extended guide RNA (pegRNA) to facility direct copying of genetic information from the extension on the pegRNA into the target polynucleotide. Embodiments that can be used with the present invention include these and variants thereof. Prime editing can have the advantage of lower off-target activity than traditional CRIPSR-Cas systems along with few byproducts and greater or similar efficiency as compared to traditional CRISPR-Cas systems.

In some embodiments, the prime editing guide molecule can specify both the target polynucleotide information (e.g., sequence) and contain a new polynucleotide cargo that replaces target polynucleotides. To initiate transfer from the guide molecule to the target polynucleotide, the PE system can nick the target polynucleotide at a target side to expose a 3′hydroxyl group, which can prime reverse transcription of an edit-encoding extension region of the guide molecule (e.g., a prime editing guide molecule or peg guide molecule) directly into the target site in the target polynucleotide. See e.g., Anzalone et al. 2019. Nature. 576: 149-157, particularly at FIGS. 1 b, 1 c, related discussion, and Supplementary discussion.

In some embodiments, a prime editing system can be composed of a Cas polypeptide having nickase activity, a reverse transcriptase, and a guide molecule. The Cas polypeptide can lack nuclease activity. The guide molecule can include a target binding sequence as well as a primer binding sequence and a template containing the edited polynucleotide sequence. The guide molecule, Cas polypeptide, and/or reverse transcriptase can be coupled together or otherwise associate with each other to form an effector complex and edit a target sequence. In some embodiments, the Cas polypeptide is a Class 2, Type V Cas polypeptide. In some embodiments, the Cas polypeptide is a Cas9 polypeptide (e.g., is a Cas9 nickase). In some embodiments, the Cas polypeptide is fused to the reverse transcriptase. In some embodiments, the Cas polypeptide is linked to the reverse transcriptase.

In some embodiments, the prime editing system can be a PE1 system or variant thereof, a PE2 system or variant thereof, or a PE3 (e.g., PE3, PE3b) system. See e.g., Anzalone et al. 2019. Nature. 576: 149-157, particularly at pgs. 2-3, FIGS. 2a, 3a -3 f, 4 a-4 b, Extended data FIGS. 3a -3 b, 4.

The peg guide molecule can be about 10 to about 200 or more nucleotides in length, such as 10 to/or 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, or 200 or more nucleotides in length. Optimization of the peg guide molecule can be accomplished as described in Anzalone et al. 2019. Nature. 576: 149-157, particularly at pg. 3, FIGS. 2a -2 b, and Extended Data FIGS. 5a -c.

CRISPR Associated Transposase (CAST) Systems

In some embodiments, a polynucleotide of the present disclosure described elsewhere herein can be modified using a CRISPR Associated Transposase (“CAST”) system. The CAST system can include a Cas protein that is catalytically inactive, or engineered to be catalytically active, and further comprises a transposase (or subunits thereof) that catalyze RNA-guided DNA transposition. Such systems are able to insert DNA sequences at a target site in a DNA molecule without relying on host cell repair machinery. CAST systems can be Class 1 or Class 2 CAST systems. An example Class 1 system is described in Klompe et al. Nature, doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1323, which is in incorporated herein by reference. An example Class 2 system is described in Strecker et al. Science. 10/1126/science. aax9181 (2019), and PCT/US2019/066835 which are incorporated herein by reference and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

TALE Nucleases

In some embodiments, a TALE nuclease or TALE nuclease system can be used to modify a polynucleotide, such as a myostatin and/or mc4-r gene or introduce an exogenous gene described herein. In some embodiments, the methods provided herein use isolated, non-naturally occurring, recombinant or engineered DNA binding proteins that comprise TALE monomers or TALE monomers or half monomers as a part of their organizational structure that enable the targeting of nucleic acid sequences with improved efficiency and expanded specificity.

Naturally occurring TALEs or “wild type TALEs” are nucleic acid binding proteins secreted by numerous species of proteobacteria. TALE polypeptides contain a nucleic acid binding domain composed of tandem repeats of highly conserved monomer polypeptides that are predominantly 33, 34 or 35 amino acids in length and that differ from each other mainly in amino acid positions 12 and 13. In advantageous embodiments the nucleic acid is DNA. As used herein, the term “polypeptide monomers”, “TALE monomers” or “monomers” will be used to refer to the highly conserved repetitive polypeptide sequences within the TALE nucleic acid binding domain and the term “repeat variable di-residues” or “RVD” will be used to refer to the highly variable amino acids at positions 12 and 13 of the polypeptide monomers. As provided throughout the disclosure, the amino acid residues of the RVD are depicted using the IUPAC single letter code for amino acids. A general representation of a TALE monomer which is comprised within the DNA binding domain is X₁₋₁₁-(X₁₂X₁₃)-X₁₄₋₃₃ or X₃₄ or X_(35,) where the subscript indicates the amino acid position and X represents any amino acid. X₁₂X₁₃ indicate the RVDs. In some polypeptide monomers, the variable amino acid at position 13 is missing or absent and in such monomers, the RVD consists of a single amino acid. In such cases the RVD may be alternatively represented as X*, where X represents X₁₂ and (*) indicates that X₁₃ is absent. The DNA binding domain comprises several repeats of TALE monomers and this may be represented as (X₁₋₁₁-(X₁₂X₁₃)-X₁₄₋₃₃ or X₃₄ or X₃₅)_(z), where in an advantageous embodiment, z is at least 5 to 40. In a further advantageous embodiment, z is at least 10 to 26.

The TALE monomers can have a nucleotide binding affinity that is determined by the identity of the amino acids in its RVD. For example, polypeptide monomers with an RVD of NI can preferentially bind to adenine (A), monomers with an RVD of NG can preferentially bind to thymine (T), monomers with an RVD of HD can preferentially bind to cytosine (C) and monomers with an RVD of NN can preferentially bind to both adenine (A) and guanine (G). In some embodiments, monomers with an RVD of IG can preferentially bind to T. Thus, the number and order of the polypeptide monomer repeats in the nucleic acid binding domain of a TALE determines its nucleic acid target specificity. In some embodiments, monomers with an RVD of NS can recognize all four base pairs and can bind to A, T, G or C. The structure and function of TALEs is further described in, for example, Moscou et al., Science 326:1501 (2009); Boch et al., Science 326:1509-1512 (2009); and Zhang et al., Nature Biotechnology 29:149-153 (2011).

The polypeptides used in methods of the invention can be isolated, non-naturally occurring, recombinant or engineered nucleic acid-binding proteins that have nucleic acid or DNA binding regions containing polypeptide monomer repeats that are designed to target specific nucleic acid sequences.

As described herein, polypeptide monomers having an RVD of HN or NH preferentially bind to guanine and thereby allow the generation of TALE polypeptides with high binding specificity for guanine containing target nucleic acid sequences. In some embodiments, polypeptide monomers having RVDs RN, NN, NK, SN, NH, KN, HN, NQ, HH, RG, KH, RH and SS can preferentially bind to guanine. In some embodiments, polypeptide monomers having RVDs RN, NK, NQ, HH, KH, RH, SS and SN can preferentially bind to guanine and can thus allow the generation of TALE polypeptides with high binding specificity for guanine containing target nucleic acid sequences. In some embodiments, polypeptide monomers having RVDs HH, KH, NH, NK, NQ, RH, RN and SS can preferentially bind to guanine and thereby allow the generation of TALE polypeptides with high binding specificity for guanine containing target nucleic acid sequences. In some embodiments, the RVDs that have high binding specificity for guanine are RN, NH RH and KH. Furthermore, polypeptide monomers having an RVD of NV can preferentially bind to adenine and guanine. In some embodiments, monomers having RVDs of H*, HA, KA, N*, NA, NC, NS, RA, and S* bind to adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine with comparable affinity.

The predetermined N-terminal to C-terminal order of the one or more polypeptide monomers of the nucleic acid or DNA binding domain determines the corresponding predetermined target nucleic acid sequence to which the polypeptides of the invention will bind. As used herein the monomers and at least one or more half monomers are “specifically ordered to target” the genomic locus or gene of interest. In plant genomes, the natural TALE-binding sites always begin with a thymine (T), which may be specified by a cryptic signal within the non-repetitive N-terminus of the TALE polypeptide; in some cases, this region may be referred to as repeat 0. In animal genomes, TALE binding sites do not necessarily have to begin with a thymine (T) and polypeptides of the invention may target DNA sequences that begin with T, A, G or C. The tandem repeat of TALE monomers always ends with a half-length repeat or a stretch of sequence that may share identity with only the first 20 amino acids of a repetitive full-length TALE monomer and this half repeat may be referred to as a half-monomer. Therefore, it follows that the length of the nucleic acid or DNA being targeted is equal to the number of full monomers plus two.

In some embodiments, the TALEs can include N- and/or C-terminal capping regions, which can increase TALE polypeptide binding efficiency (see e.g., Zhang et al., Nature Biotechnology 29:149-153 (2011). Such “capping regions” can be directly N-terminal and/or C-terminal of the DNA binding region of a TALE. Exemplary amino acid sequence of a N-terminal capping region and C-terminal capping regions are generally known in the art.

As used herein, the predetermined “N-terminus” to “C terminus” orientation of the N-terminal capping region, the DNA binding domain comprising the repeat TALE monomers and the C-terminal capping region provide structural basis for the organization of different domains in the d-TALEs or polypeptides described herein.

In some embodiments, the entire N-terminal and/or C-terminal capping regions are not necessary to enhance the binding activity of the DNA binding region. Therefore, in certain embodiments, fragments of the N-terminal and/or C-terminal capping regions are included in the TALE polypeptides described herein.

In certain embodiments, the TALE polypeptides described herein contain an N-terminal capping region fragment that included at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 54, 60, 70, 80, 87, 90, 94, 100, 102, 110, 117, 120, 130, 140, 147, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 210, 220, 230, 240, 250, 260 or 270 amino acids of an N-terminal capping region. In certain embodiments, the N-terminal capping region fragment amino acids are of the C-terminus (the DNA-binding region proximal end) of an N-terminal capping region. As described in Zhang et al., Nature Biotechnology 29:149-153 (2011), N-terminal capping region fragments that include the C-terminal 240 amino acids enhance binding activity equal to the full length capping region, while fragments that include the C-terminal 147 amino acids retain greater than 80% of the efficacy of the full length capping region, and fragments that include the C-terminal 117 amino acids retain greater than 50% of the activity of the full-length capping region.

In some embodiments, the TALE polypeptides described herein contain a C-terminal capping region fragment that included at least 6, 10, 20, 30, 37, 40, 50, 60, 68, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 127, 130, 140, 150, 155, 160, 170, 180 amino acids of a C-terminal capping region. In certain embodiments, the C-terminal capping region fragment amino acids are of the N-terminus (the DNA-binding region proximal end) of a C-terminal capping region. In some embodiments, the C-terminal capping region includes only or at least the 68 C-terminal amino acids, which enhance binding activity equal to the full-length capping region. See e.g., Zhang et al., Nature Biotechnology 29:149-153 (2011). In some embodiments, the C-terminal capping region includes only or at least the 20 C-terminal amino acids, which have about 50% or greater the efficacy of the full-length capping region. See e.g., Zhang et al., Nature Biotechnology 29:149-153 (2011).

In certain embodiments, the capping regions of the TALE polypeptides described herein do not need to have identical sequences to the capping region sequences provided herein. Thus, in some embodiments, the capping region of the TALE polypeptides described herein have sequences that are at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical or share identity to the capping region amino acid sequences provided herein. Sequence identity is related to sequence homology. Homology comparisons may be conducted by eye, or more usually, with the aid of readily available sequence comparison programs. These commercially available computer programs may calculate percent (%) homology between two or more sequences and may also calculate the sequence identity shared by two or more amino acid or nucleic acid sequences. In some preferred embodiments, the capping region of the TALE polypeptides described herein have sequences that are at least 95% identical or share identity to the capping region amino acid sequences provided herein.

Sequence homologies can be generated by any of a number of computer programs known in the art, which include but are not limited to BLAST or FASTA. Suitable computer programs for carrying out alignments like the GCG Wisconsin Bestfit package may also be used. Once the software has produced an optimal alignment, it is possible to calculate % homology, preferably % sequence identity. The software typically does this as part of the sequence comparison and generates a numerical result.

In some embodiments described herein, the TALE polypeptides include a nucleic acid binding domain linked to the one or more effector domains. The terms “effector domain” or “regulatory and functional domain” refer to a polypeptide sequence that has an activity other than binding to the nucleic acid sequence recognized by the nucleic acid binding domain. By combining a nucleic acid binding domain with one or more effector domains, the polypeptides of the invention may be used to target the one or more functions or activities mediated by the effector domain to a particular target DNA sequence to which the nucleic acid binding domain specifically binds.

In some embodiments of the TALE polypeptides described herein, the activity mediated by the effector domain is a biological activity. For example, in some embodiments the effector domain is a transcriptional inhibitor (i.e., a repressor domain), such as an mSin interaction domain (SID). SID4X domain or a Kruppel-associated box (KRAB) or fragments of the KRAB domain. In some embodiments, the effector domain is an enhancer of transcription (i.e., an activation domain), such as the VP16, VP64 or p65 activation domain. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid binding is linked, for example, with an effector domain that includes but is not limited to a transposase, integrase, recombinase, resolvase, invertase, protease, DNA methyltransferase, DNA demethylase, histone acetylase, histone deacetylase, nuclease, transcriptional repressor, transcriptional activator, transcription factor recruiting, protein nuclear-localization signal or cellular uptake signal.

In some embodiments, the effector domain is a protein domain which exhibits activities which include but are not limited to transposase activity, integrase activity, recombinase activity, resolvase activity, invertase activity, protease activity, DNA methyltransferase activity, DNA demethylase activity, histone acetylase activity, histone deacetylase activity, nuclease activity, nuclear-localization signaling activity, transcriptional repressor activity, transcriptional activator activity, transcription factor recruiting activity, or cellular uptake signaling activity. Other preferred embodiments of the invention may include any combination of the activities described herein.

A variety of additional TALEN-based systems have been described in the art, and modifications thereof are regularly reported; see, e.g., Boch, Science 326(5959):1509-12 (2009); Mak et al., Science 335(6069):716-9 (2012); and Moscou et al., Science 326(5959):1501 (2009). The use of TALENs based on the “Golden Gate” platform, or cloning scheme, has been described by multiple groups; see, e.g., Cermak et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 39(12):e82 (2011); Li et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 39(14):6315-25 (2011); Weber et al., PLoS One. 6(2):e16765 (2011); Wang et al., J Genet Genomics 41(6):339-47, Epub 2014 May 17 (2014); and Cermak T et al., Methods Mol Biol. 1239:133-59 (2015), any of which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Zinc Finger Nucleases

In some embodiments, a polynucleotide, such as a myostatin and/or mc4-r polynucleotide, is modified using a zinc finger system. In some embodiments, a ZFN system can be used to introduce an exogenous gene, such as any of those described elsewhere herein. One type of programmable DNA-binding domain is provided by artificial zinc-finger (ZF) technology, which involves arrays of ZF modules to target new DNA-binding sites in the genome. Each finger module in a ZF array targets three DNA bases. A customized array of individual zinc finger domains is assembled into a ZF protein (ZFP).

Zinc Finger proteins can comprise a functional domain. The first synthetic zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) were developed by fusing a ZF protein to the catalytic domain of the Type IIS restriction enzyme FokI. (Kim, Y. G. et al., 1994, Chimeric restriction endonuclease, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 883-887; Kim, Y. G. et al., 1996, Hybrid restriction enzymes: zinc finger fusions to Fok I cleavage domain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93, 1156-1160). Increased cleavage specificity can be attained with decreased off target activity by use of paired ZFN heterodimers, each targeting different nucleotide sequences separated by a short spacer. (Doyon, Y. et al., 2011, Enhancing zinc-finger-nuclease activity with improved obligate heterodimeric architectures. Nat. Methods 8, 74-79). ZFPs can also be designed as transcription activators and repressors and have been used to target many genes in a wide variety of organisms. These and any other ZFN systems can be used to modify the genome, such as the myostatin and/or mc4-r gene. Exemplary methods of genome editing using ZFNs can be found for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,534,261, 6,607,882, 6,746,838, 6,794,136, 6,824,978, 6,866,997, 6,933,113, 6,979,539, 7,013,219, 7,030,215, 7,220,719, 7,241,573, 7,241,574, 7,585,849, 7,595,376, 6,903,185, and 6,479,626, all of which are specifically incorporated by reference and whose systems and methods can be adapted for use with the present disclosure to generate a myostatin and/or mc4-r deficient cells and/or organism.

A variety of ZFN-based systems have been described in the art, modifications thereof are regularly reported, and numerous references describe rules and parameters that are used to guide the design of ZFNs; see, e.g., Segal et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96(6):2758-63 (1999); Dreier B et al., J Mol Biol. 303(4):489-502 (2000); Liu Q et al., J Biol Chem. 277(6):3850-6 (2002); Dreier et al., J Biol Chem 280(42):35588-97 (2005); and Dreier et al., J Biol Chem. 276(31):29466-78 (2001).

Homing Endonucleases

In some embodiments, the genetic modifying system is or includes one or more homing endonucleases. Homing endonucleases (HEs) are sequence-specific endonucleases that have long recognition sequences (14-44 base pairs) and cleave DNA with high specificity—often at sites unique in the genome. There are at least six known families of HEs as classified by their structure, including GIY-YIG, His-Cis box, H—N—H, PD-(D/E)xK, and Vsr-like that are derived from a broad range of hosts, including eukaryotes, protists, bacteria, archaea, cyanobacteria and phage. As with ZFNs and TALENs, HEs can be used to create a DSB at a target locus as the initial step in genome editing. In addition, some natural and engineered HEs cut only a single strand of DNA, thereby functioning as site-specific nickases. The large target sequence of HEs and the specificity that they offer have made them attractive candidates to create site-specific DSBs.

A variety of HE-based systems have been described in the art, and modifications thereof are regularly reported; see, e.g., the reviews by Steentoft et al., Glycobiology 24(8):663-80 (2014); Belfort and Bonocora, Methods Mol Biol. 1123:1-26 (2014); Hafez and Hausner, Genome 55(8):553-69 (2012); and references cited therein, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Meganucleases and Hybrid Meganucleases

In some embodiments, a meganuclease, a hybrid mega nuclease, or system thereof can be used to modify a polynucleotide, such as a myostatin or mc4-r polynucleotide or donor cell polynucleotide. Meganucleases are endodeoxyribonucleases that are characterized by a large recognition site (double-stranded DNA sequences of 12 to 40 base pairs). Exemplary meganucelases and methods for using meganucleases can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,163,514, 8,133,697, 8,021,867, 8,119,361, 8,119,381, 8,124,369, and 8,129,134, which are specifically incorporated herein by reference. Such methods can be adapted for use to generate an engineered fish of the present disclsoure.

Exemplary hybrid meganucleases include, without limitation, the MegaTal system and Tev-mTALEN systems, which use a fusion of TALE DNA binding domains and catalytically active HEs, taking advantage of both the tunable DNA binding and specificity of the TALE, as well as the cleavage sequence specificity of the HE; see, e.g., Boissel et al., NAR 42: 2591-2601 (2014); Kleinstiver et al., G3 4:1155-65 (2014); and Boissel and Scharenberg, Methods Mol. Biol. 1239: 171-96 (2015). Other exemplary hybrid meganucleases include, without limitation, the MegaTev system, which includes fusion of a meganuclease (Mega) with the nuclease domain derived from the GIY-YIG homing endonuclease I-Teel (Tev) where two active sites are positioned about 30 bp apart on a DNA substrate and generate two DSBs with non-compatible cohesive ends; see, e.g., Wolfs et al., NAR 42, 8816-29 (2014).

RNAi

In certain embodiments, the genetic modification system is an interfering RNA (RNAi) system or agent (e.g., shRNA). As used herein, “gene silencing” or “gene silenced” in reference to an activity of an RNAi molecule or system, for example a siRNA or miRNA refers to a decrease in the mRNA level in a cell for a target gene by at least about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99%, about 100% of the mRNA level found in the cell without the presence of the miRNA or RNA interference molecule. In one preferred embodiment, the mRNA levels are decreased by at least about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99%, about 100%.

As used herein, the term “RNAi” refers to any type of interfering RNA system or molecule, including but not limited to, siRNAi, shRNAi, endogenous microRNA, long non-coding RNA, and artificial microRNA. For instance, it includes sequences previously identified as siRNA, regardless of the mechanism of up- or down-stream processing of the RNA (i.e., although siRNAs are believed to have a specific method of in vivo processing resulting in the cleavage of mRNA, such sequences can be incorporated into the vectors in the context of the flanking sequences described herein). The term “RNAi” can include both gene silencing RNAi molecules, and also RNAi effector molecules which activate the expression of a gene.

As used herein, a “siRNA” refers to a nucleic acid that forms a double stranded RNA, which double stranded RNA has the ability to reduce or inhibit expression of a gene or target gene when the siRNA is present or expressed in the same cell as the target gene. The double stranded RNA siRNA can be formed by the complementary strands. In one embodiment, a siRNA refers to a nucleic acid that can form a double stranded siRNA. The sequence of the siRNA can correspond to the full-length target gene, or a subsequence thereof. Typically, the siRNA is at least about 15-50 nucleotides in length (e.g., each complementary sequence of the double stranded siRNA is about 15-50 nucleotides in length, and the double stranded siRNA is about 15-50 base pairs in length, preferably about 19-30 base nucleotides, preferably about 20-25 nucleotides in length, e.g., 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 nucleotides in length).

As used herein “shRNA” or “small hairpin RNA” (also called stem loop) is a type of siRNA. In one embodiment, these shRNAs are composed of a short, e.g., about 19 to about 25 nucleotide, antisense strand, followed by a nucleotide loop of about 5 to about 9 nucleotides, and the analogous sense strand. Alternatively, the sense strand can precede the nucleotide loop structure and the antisense strand can follow.

The terms “microRNA” or “miRNA” are used interchangeably herein are endogenous RNAs, some of which are known to regulate the expression of protein-coding genes at the posttranscriptional level. Endogenous microRNAs are small RNAs naturally present in the genome that are capable of modulating the productive utilization of mRNA. The term artificial microRNA includes any type of RNA sequence, other than endogenous microRNA, which is capable of modulating the productive utilization of mRNA. MicroRNA sequences have been described in publications such as Lim, et al., Genes & Development, 17, p. 991-1008 (2003), Lim et al Science 299, 1540 (2003), Lee and Ambros Science, 294, 862 (2001), Lau et al., Science 294, 858-861 (2001), Lagos-Quintana et al, Current Biology, 12, 735-739 (2002), Lagos Quintana et al, Science 294, 853-857 (2001), and Lagos-Quintana et al, RNA, 9, 175-179 (2003), which are incorporated herein by reference. Multiple microRNAs can also be incorporated into a precursor molecule. Furthermore, miRNA-like stem-loops can be expressed in cells as a vehicle to deliver artificial miRNAs and short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) for the purpose of modulating the expression of endogenous genes through the miRNA and or RNAi pathways.

As used herein, “double stranded RNA” or “dsRNA” refers to RNA molecules that are comprised of two strands. Double-stranded molecules include those comprised of a single RNA molecule that doubles back on itself to form a two-stranded structure. For example, the stem loop structure of the progenitor molecules from which the single-stranded miRNA is derived, called the pre-miRNA (Bartel et al. 2004. Cell 1 16:281 -297), comprises a dsRNA molecule.

RNAi molecules can be delivered as the final active RNAi molecule or via a DNA polynucleotide or vector that encodes the RNAi molecule.

In some embodiments, the RNAi molecule or system targets a myostatin or mc4-r RNA molecule, such a a myostatin or mc4-r mRNA. In some embodiments, the RNAi molecule or system produces an RNAi molecule that binds to and results in the degradation of a a myostatin or mc4-r RNA and/or inhibition of translation of a a myostatin or mc4-r mRNA. In some embodiments, the amount of a myostatin or mc4-r RNA is reduced below detectable levels and/or reduces the amount of a myostatin or mc4-r protein so as to effectively eliminate the function of myostatin or mc4-r.

In some embodiments, the RNAi molecule or system targets one or more RNA molecules in a donor cell(s) to target a gene product of interest to generate a cell or organism having a desired phenotype or characteristic.

Transposon Systems

In some embodiments, the myostatin or mc4-r polynucleotide in a host cell or a target polynucleotide in a donor cell is modified using a transposon system. Exemplary transposons systems that can be utilized for modifying a polynucleotide are described herein and will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art in view of this disclosure. In some embodiments, the transposon system is a Class I transposon system polypeptide. In some embodiments, the transposon system is a Class II transposon system polypeptide. As used herein, “transposon” (also referred to as transposable element) refers to a polynucleotide sequence that is capable of moving form location in a genome to another. There are several classes of transposons. Transposons include retrotransposons (Class I transposons) and DNA transposons (Class II transposons). Retrotransposons require the transcription of the polynucleotide that is moved (or transposed) in order to transpose the polynucleotide to a new genome or polynucleotide. DNA transposons are those that do not require reverse transcription of the polynucleotide that is moved (or transposed) in order to transpose the polynucleotide to a new genome or polynucleotide.

Suitable Class I transposon systems include any of those in, without limitation, LTR and non-LTR retrotransposon systems. Exemplary Class I transposon systems include, without limitation, CRE, R2, R4, L1, RTE, Tad, R1, LOA, I, Jockey, CR1 polypeptides. See e.g., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Nov 21;103(47):17602-7; Eickbush TH et al, Integration, Regulation, and Long-Term Stability of R2 Retrotransposons, Microbiol Spectr. 2015 Apr;3(2):MDNA3-0011-2014. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MDNA3 -0011-2014; Han J S, Non-long terminal repeat (non-LTR) retrotransposons: mechanisms, recent developments, and unanswered questions, Mob DNA. 2010 May 12;1(1):15. doi: 10.1186/1759-8753-1-15; Malik HS et al., The age and evolution of non-LTR retrotransposable elements, Mol Biol Evol. 1999 Jun;16(6):793-805, which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

Suitable Class II transposon systems include any of those in, without limitation, the following transposon systems: Sleeping Beauty transposon system (Tc1/mariner superfamily) (see e.g., Ivies et al. 1997. Cell. 91(4): 501-510), piggyBac (piggyBac superfamily) (see e.g., Li et al. 2013 110(25): E2279-E2287 and Yusa et al. 2011. PNAS. 108(4): 1531-1536), Tol2 (superfamily hAT), Frog Prince (Tcl/mariner superfamily) (see e.g., Miskey et al. 2003 Nucleic Acid Res. 31(23):6873-6881) and variants thereof. In some embodiments, the Class II transposon system is a DD[E/D] transposon or transposon polypeptide. In some embodiments, the Class II transposon psystem is a Tc1/mariner, PiggyBac, Frog Prince, Tn3, Tn5, hAT, CACTA, P, Mutator, PIF/Harbinger, Transib, or a Merlin/IS1016 transposon polypeptide.

Suitable Class II transposon systems and components that can be utilized in the context of the present invention include and are not limited to those described in e.g., Han et al., 2013. BMC Genomics. 14:71, doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-71, Lopez and Garcia-Perez. 2010. Curr. Genomics. 11(2):115-128; Wessler. 2006. PNAS. 103(47): 176000-17601; Gao et al., 2017. Marine Genomics. 34:67-77; Bradic et al. 2014. Mobile DNA. 5(12) doi:10.1186/1759-8753-5-12; Li et al., 2013. PNAS. 110(25)E2279-E2287; Kebriaei et al. 2017. Trends in Genetics. 33(11): 852-870); Miskey et al. 2003. Nucleic Acid res. 31(23):6873-6881; Nicolas et al. 2015. Microbiol Spectr. 3(4) doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MDNA3-0060-2014); W.S. Reznikoff. 1993. Annu Rev. Microbiol. 47:945-963; Rubin et al. 2001. Genetics. 158(3): 949-957; Wicker et al. 2003. Plant Physiol. 132(1): 52-63; Majumdar and Rio. 2015. Microbiol. Spectr. 3(2) doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MDNA3-0004-2014; D. Lisch. 2002. Trends in Plant Sci. 7(11): 498-504; Sinzelle et al. 2007. PNAS. 105(12): 4715-4720; Han et al. 2014; Genome Biol. Evol. 6(7):1748-1757; Grzebelus et al. 2006; Mol. Genet. Genomics. 275(5):450-459; Zhang et al. 2004. Genetics. 166(2):971-986; Chen and Li. 2008. Gene. 408(1-2):51-63; and C. Feschotte. 2004. Mol. Biol. Evol. 21(9):1769-1780.

Recombinase Systems

In some embodiments, the genetic modification system to modify a genome is a recombinase system. Generally, recombinases are enzymes that catalyze site-specific recombination events, and recombination systems employ such enzymes to achieve site-specific polynucleotide integration or disruption. Many recombinase systems for gene knock-in, gene knock-out, and other genome or polynucleotide modifications are generally known in the art since their introduction several decades ago (see e.g., Sauer, B. Mol Cell Biol 7(6):2087-2096 (1987)) and can be used in the context of the present disclosure to introduce a transgene of the present disclosure and/or one or more components of another genetic modifying system described herein and/or generally known to a genome of a cell or another polynucleotide. Exemplary systems include without limitations, Cre-lox and FLP-FRT systems (see e.g., Maizels et al., J. Immunol. 2013. 161(1): doi:10.4049/jimmuno1.1301241; Graham et al., Biotech J. 2009. 4(1):108-118; Chen et al. Animal. 4(5):767-771 (2010); Kalds et al. Front. Genet. 2019, doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00750; Gurusinghe et al., J Cell Biochem. 2017. 118(5):1201-1215; and Wang et al., Plant Cell Rep (2011) 30:267-285), which are each incorporated by reference as if expressed in their entirety and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Delivery of Polynucleotides and Polypeptides

The genetic modification system or component thereof (including any polynucleotides, polypeptides (or complexes thereof), vectors, vector systems, and/or the like) can be delivered to a cell or cell population, such as that to be modified, using any suitable delivery composition, system or technique. Exemplary delivery compositions, systems, and/or techniques are described below and elsewhere herein.

Physical Delivery

In some embodiments, the genetic modifying system or component thereof, may be introduced to cells by physical delivery methods. Examples of physical methods include microinjection, electroporation, and hydrodynamic delivery. Both nucleic acid and proteins may be delivered using such methods. For example, Cas protein may be prepared in vitro, isolated, (refolded and purified if needed), and introduced to cells by a physical delivery method or technique.

Microinjection

Microinjection of the genetic modifying system or component thereof directly to cells can achieve high efficiency, e.g., above 90% or about 100%. In some embodiments, microinjection may be performed using a microscope and a needle (e.g., with 0.5-5.0 μm in diameter) to pierce a cell membrane and deliver the cargo directly to a target site within the cell. Microinjection may be used for in vitro and ex vivo delivery.

Plasmids comprising coding sequences for Cas or other genetic modifying system effector proteins and/or any associated polynucleotides (e.g., guide RNAs, mRNAs, and/or guide RNAs), may be microinjected. In some cases, microinjection may be used i) to deliver DNA directly to a cell nucleus, and/or ii) to deliver mRNA (e.g., in vitro transcribed) to a cell nucleus or cytoplasm. In certain examples, microinjection may be used to delivery sgRNA directly to the nucleus and Cas or other effector protein-encoding mRNA to the cytoplasm, e.g., facilitating translation and shuttling of Cas or other effector protein to the cell nucleus.

Microinjection may be used to generate genetically modified animals. For example, gene modification systems or components thereof may be injected into zygotes, blastomeres, blastocysts, embryonic stem cells, pluripotent stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, primordial germ cells, primordial germ cell like-cells, and/or the like to allow for gene medication, such as germline modification.

Microinjection has been used to deliver nucleic acids, polypeptides, and complexes to fish cells. See e.g., Shirakashi et al., Biomicrofluidics. 2015 Nov; 9(6): 064109; Porazinski et al., J Vis Exp. 2010; (46): 1937; Schubert et al., Environmental Sciences Europe volume 26, Article number: 32 (2014); Zhu and Sun et al., Cell Research volume 10, pages 17-27 (2000); Hartmann and Englert. 2012. Developmental Dynamics 241:1133-1141; Dunham R.A., Elaswad A., Qin Z. (2018) Gene Editing in Channel Catfish via Double Electroporation of Zinc-Finger Nucleases. In: Liu J. (eds) Zinc Finger Proteins. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1867. Humana Press, New York, N.Y. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8799-3_15 (pp. 201-214); and Elaswad et al., 2018. Genetics. doi: 10.3791/56275, which are incorporated by reference herein as if expressed in their entireties and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Electroporation

In some embodiments, the cargos and/or delivery vehicles may be delivered by electroporation. Electroporation may use pulsed high-voltage electrical currents to transiently open nanometer-sized pores within the cellular membrane of cells suspended in buffer, allowing for components with hydrodynamic diameters of tens of nanometers to flow into the cell. In some cases, electroporation may be used on various cell types and efficiently transfer cargo into cells. Electroporation may be used for in vitro and ex vivo delivery.

Electroporation has been used to deliver exogenous polynucleotides and/or polypeptides to fish cells. Such approaches include those described in e.g., Powers et al., Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol. Aug-Oct 1992;1(4-5):301-8; Dunham et al., Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1867:201-214. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8799-3_15; Inoue et al., Cell Diff. Devel. 1990. 29(2):123-128; and Bates. “Production of Transgenic Channel Catfish.” (1997). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 6465, which are incorporated by reference as if expressed herein in their entireties and can be adapted for use with the present description.

Electroporation has been used to deliver nucleic acids and proteins to into the nuclei of mammalian cells by applying specific voltage and reagents, e.g., by nucleofection. Such approaches include those described in Wu Y, et al. (2015). Cell Res 25:67-79; Ye L, et al. (2014). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:9591-6; Choi PS, Meyerson M. (2014). Nat Commun 5:3728; Wang J, Quake S R. (2014). Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:13157-62. Electroporation may also be used to deliver the cargo in vivo, e.g., with methods described in Zuckermann M, et al. (2015). Nat Commun 6:7391, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Electroporation has been used to deliver exogenous polynucleotides and/or polypeptides to bovine zygotes. See e.g., Lin and Van Eenennaam. Front Genet. 2021; 12: 648482, doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.648482, particularly at supplementary table 1. In some embodiments, the voltage and number of pulses for delivery of an exogenous polynucleotide to a bovine cell, such as a zygote or blastocyst, via electroporation is 10-20 V/mm and 2-6 pulses, 10-20 V/mm and 2-3 pulses, 15-20 V/mm and 2-3 pulses, 15 V/mm and 6 pulses See e.g., Tanihara, F., Hirata, M., Morikawa, S., Nguyen, N. T., Le, Q. A., Hirano, T., et al. (2019). The effects of electroporation on viability and quality of in vivo-derived bovine blastocysts. J. Reprod. Dev. 65,475-479. doi: 10.1262/jrd.2019-049; Namula, Z., Wittayarat, M., Hirata, M., Hirano, T., Nguyen, N. T., Le, Q. A., et al. (2019). Genome mutation after the introduction of the gene editing by electroporation of Cas9 protein (GEEP) system into bovine putative zygotes. In Vitro Cell. Dev. An. 55, 598-603; Miao, D., Giassetti, M. I., Ciccarelli, M., Lopez-Biladeau, B., and Oatley, J. M. (2019). Simplified pipelines for genetic engineering of mammalian embryos by CRISPR-Cas9 electroporation dagger. Biol. Reprod. 101, 177-187; Ciccarelli, M., Giassetti, M. I., Miao, D., Oatley, M. J., Robbins, C., Lopez-Biladeau, B., et al. (2020). Donor-derived spermatogenesis following stem cell transplantation in sterile NANOS2 knockout males. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 117, 24195-24204; Camargo, L. S. A., Owen, J. R., Van Eenennaam, A. L., and Ross, P. J. (2020). Efficient one-step knockout by electroporation of ribonucleoproteins into zona-intact bovine embryos. Front. Genet. 11:570069; and Wei, J., Gaynor, P., Cole, S., Brophy, B., Oback, B., and Laible, G. (2018). “Developing the laboratory conditions for bovine zygote-mediated genome editing by electroporation” in Proceedings of the World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, which are incorporated by reference herein and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Hydrodynamic Delivery

Hydrodynamic delivery can also be used for delivering the gene modification system, e.g., for in vivo delivery. In some examples, hydrodynamic delivery may be performed by rapidly pushing a large volume (8-10% body weight) solution containing the gene modification system into the bloodstream of a subject (e.g., a fish). As blood is incompressible, the large bolus of liquid may result in an increase in hydrodynamic pressure that temporarily enhances permeability into endothelial and parenchymal cells, allowing for cargo not normally capable of crossing a cellular membrane to pass into cells. This approach may be used for delivering naked DNA plasmids and proteins.

Transfection

Nucleic acids and/or polypeptides, can be introduced to cells by transfection methods for introducing nucleic acids into cells. Examples of transfection methods include calcium phosphate-mediated transfection, cationic transfection, liposome transfection, dendrimer transfection, heat shock transfection, magnetofection, lipofection, impalefection, optical transfection, proprietary agent-enhanced uptake of nucleic acid. Nucleic acids and vectors and vector systems that can encode a genetic modifying system and/or components thereof are described in greater detail else wherein herein. Transfection has been used to deliver nucleic acid constructs to bovine cells. See e.g., Tajik et al., Iran J Vet Res. 2017 Spring; 18(2): 113-118; Jafarnej ad et al., S African J Anim Sci, Vol. 48 No. 1 (2018) DOI: 10.4314/sajas.v48i1.13; Duarte et al., Anim Biotechnol. 2020 Dec 30;1-11. doi: 10.1080/10495398.2020.1862137; and Osorio Gene. 2017 Aug 30;626:200-208, which are incorporated by reference as if expressed in their entireties herein and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Transduction

The genetic modifying systems and/or components thereof, e.g., nucleic acids and/or polypeptides, can be introduced to cells by transduction by a viral, pseudoviral, and/or virus like particle. Methods of packaging the genetic modifying systems and/or components thereof in viral particles can be accomplished using any suitable viral vector or vector systems. Such viral vector and vector systems are described in greater detail elsewhere herein. As used in this context herein “transduction” refers to the process by which foreign nucleic acids and/or proteins are introduced to a cell (prokaryote or eukaryote) by a viral, pseudoviral, and/or virus like particle. After packaging in a viral, pseudoviral, and/or virus like particle. the viral particles can be exposed to cells (e.g., in vitro, ex vivo, or in vivo) where the viral, pseudoviral, and/or virus like particle infects the cell and delivers the cargo to the cell via transduction. Viral, pseudoviral, and/or virus like particles can be optionally concentrated prior to exposure to target cells. In some embodiments, the virus titer of a composition containing viral and/or pseudoviral particles can be obtained and a specific titer be used to transduce cells. Viral vectors and systems and generation of viral (or pseudoviral, and/or virus like particle) delivery particles is described in greater detail elsewhere herein. Viral transduction has been used to deliver exogenous nucleic acid constructs to fish cells. See e.g., Liu et al., PLoS One. 2015; 10(6): e0127961; Leisy et al., J Gen Virol. 2003. 84:1173-1178; Huang et al., 2011. Journal of Virological Methods 173(2):294-9; and Kurita et al., 2004. PNAS. 101(5):1263-1267; which are incorporated by reference as if expressed in their entireties herein and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Biolistics

The genetic modifying systems and/or components thereof, e.g., nucleic acids and/or polypeptides, can be introduced to cells using a biolistic method or technique. The term of art “biolistic”, as used herein refers to the delivery of nucleic acids to cells by high-speed particle bombardment. In some embodiments, the genetic modifying systems and/or components thereof can be attached, associated with, or otherwise coupled to particles, which than can be delivered to the cell via a gene-gun (see e.g., Liang et al. 2018. Nat. Protocol. 13:413-430; Svitashev et al. 2016. Nat. Comm. 7:13274; Ortega-Escalante et al., 2019. Plant. J. 97:661-672). Gene gun has been used to deliver nucleic acids and/or polypeptides to fish cells. See e.g., Lee et al., Mar Biotechnol (NY). 2000 May;2(3):254-258. doi: 10.1007/s101269900030; Gomez-Chiarri et al., 1996. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 27(1):5-12; and Torgersen et al., 2000. Marine Biotechnol. 2(3):293-300, which are incorporated by reference as if expressed in their entireties herein and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the particles can be gold, tungsten, palladium, rhodium, platinum, or iridium particles.

Implantable Devices

In some embodiments, the delivery system can include an implantable device that incorporates or is coated with a genetic modifying systems and/or components thereof described herein. Various implantable devices are described in the art, and include any device, graft, or other composition that can be implanted into a subject, such as a fish.

Delivery Vehicles

Polynucleotides and/or polypeptides of the present disclosure, such as a genetic modifying system, can be delivered (e.g., to a target cell to be modified) via one or more delivery vehicles. The delivery vehicles can deliver a cargo, such as a polynucleotide or polypeptide of the present disclosure (such as a genetic modifying system), into cells, tissues, organs, or organisms (e.g., animals or plants). In some embodiments, delivery vehicles are sued to deliver a cargo, such as a genetic modifying system or component thereof or other polynucleotide or polypeptide of the present disclosure to a target fish cell. The cargos may be packaged, carried, or otherwise associated with the delivery vehicles. The delivery vehicles may be selected based on the types of cargo to be delivered, and/or the delivery is in vitro and/or in vivo. Examples of delivery vehicles include vectors, viruses (e.g., virus particles, pseudoviral particles, or virus like particles), non-viral vehicles (e.g., exosomes, liposomes, etc.), and other delivery reagents described herein and those appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the present disclosure.

The delivery vehicles described herein can have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension (e.g., diameter or greatest average diameter) of less than 100 microns (μm). In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension of less than 10 μm. In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles may have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension of less than 2000 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles may have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension of less than 1000 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles may have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension (e.g., diameter or average diameter) of less than 900 nm, less than 800 nm, less than 700 nm, less than 600 nm, less than 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, less than 200 nm, less than 150nm, or less than 100nm, less than 50nm. In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles may have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm.

Particles

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles may be or comprise particles. For example, the delivery vehicle may be or comprise nanoparticles (e.g., particles with a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension (e.g., diameter or greatest average diameter) no greater than 1000 nm. The particles may be provided in different forms, e.g., as solid particles (e.g., metal such as silver, gold, iron, titanium), non-metal, lipid-based solids, polymers), suspensions of particles, or combinations thereof. Metal, dielectric, and semiconductor particles may be prepared, as well as hybrid structures (e.g., core—shell particles).

Nanoparticles may also be used to deliver the compositions and systems to cells, as described in US20130185823, WO2008042156, and WO2015089419. In general, a “nanoparticle” refers to any particle having a diameter of less than 1000 nm. In certain embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension (e.g., diameter or average diameter) of 500 nm or less. In other embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension ranging between 25 nm and 200 nm. In other embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimension of 100 nm or less. In other embodiments, nanoparticles of the invention have a greatest dimension or greatest average dimensions ranging between 35 nm and 60 nm. It will be appreciated that reference made herein to particles or nanoparticles can be interchangeable, where appropriate. Nanoparticles made of semiconducting material may also be labeled quantum dots if they are small enough (typically sub 10 nm) that quantization of electronic energy levels occurs. Such nanoscale particles are used in biomedical applications as drug carriers or imaging agents and may be adapted for similar purposes in the present invention. Semi-solid and soft nanoparticles have been manufactured and are within the scope of the present invention. Nanoparticles with one half hydrophilic and the other half hydrophobic are termed Janus particles and are particularly effective for stabilizing emulsions. They can self-assemble at water/oil interfaces and act as solid surfactants.

Particle characterization (including e.g., characterizing morphology, dimension, etc.) is done using a variety of different techniques. Common techniques are electron microscopy (TEM, SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry(MALDI-TOF), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, dual polarization interferometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Characterization (dimension measurements) may be made as to native particles (i.e., preloading) or after loading of the cargo (e.g., one or more components of a genetic modifying system (e.g., a CRISPR-Cas system or component(s) thereof) and can include additional carriers and/or excipients) to provide particles of an optimal size for delivery for any in vitro, ex vivo and/or in vivo application of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, particle dimension (e.g., diameter) characterization is based on measurements using dynamic laser scattering (DLS). See also e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,709,843; 6,007,845; 5,855,913; 5,985,309; 5,543,158; and Dahlman et al. Nature Nanotechnology (2014), doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.84, describes particles, methods of making and using them, and measurements thereof which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Vectors and Vector Systems

In some embodiments the delivery vehicle is a vector or vector system or particle, such as a virus or viral like particle, produced from such a vector or vector system. As such, also provided herein are vectors that can contain one or more of the genetic modifying system polynucleotides described herein. In certain embodiments, the vector can contain one or more polynucleotides encoding one or more elements of a genetic modifying system described herein. The vectors can be useful in producing bacterial, fungal, yeast, plant cells, animal cells, and transgenic animals that can express one or more components of the genetic modifying system described herein, and as such, contain a genetic modification or be rendered capable of producing particles (e.g., viral or viral like particles) that can be used to deliver a genetic modifying system described herein to a cell, such as a fish cell.

Within the scope of this disclosure are vectors containing one or more of the polynucleotide sequences described herein, such as those relevant to introducing a modification to myostatin and/or mc4-r and/or introducing an exogenous gene. One or more of the polynucleotides that are part of a genetic modifying system can be included in a vector or vector system. The vectors and/or vector systems can be used, for example, to express one or more of the polynucleotides in a cell, such as a producer cell, to produce a genetic modifying system containing virus particles described elsewhere herein. Other uses for the vectors and vector systems described herein are also within the scope of this disclosure. In general, and throughout this specification, the term “vector” refers to a tool that allows or facilitates the transfer of an entity from one environment to another. In some contexts which will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, “vector” can be a term of art to refer to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. A vector can be a replicon, such as a plasmid, phage, or cosmid, into which another DNA segment may be inserted so as to bring about the replication of the inserted segment. Generally, a vector is capable of replication when associated with the proper control elements.

Vectors include, but are not limited to, nucleic acid molecules that are single-stranded, double-stranded, or partially double-stranded; nucleic acid molecules that comprise one or more free ends, no free ends (e.g., circular); nucleic acid molecules that comprise DNA, RNA, or both; and other varieties of polynucleotides known in the art. One type of vector is a “plasmid,” which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments can be inserted, such as by standard molecular cloning techniques. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein virally-derived DNA or RNA sequences are present in the vector for packaging into a virus (e.g., retroviruses, replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses, replication defective adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses (AAVs)). Viral vectors also include polynucleotides carried by a virus for transfection into a host cell. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g., bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively-linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as “expression vectors.” Common expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids.

Recombinant expression vectors can be composed of a nucleic acid (e.g., a polynucleotide) of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory elements, which can be selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, that is operatively-linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinant expression vector, “operably linked” and “operatively-linked” are used interchangeably herein and mean that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory element(s) in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g., in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell when the vector is introduced into the host cell). Advantageous vectors include lentiviruses and adeno-associated viruses, and types of such vectors can also be selected for targeting particular types of cells. These and other embodiments of the vectors and vector systems are described elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, the vector can be a bicistronic vector. In some embodiments, a bicistronic vector can be used for one or more elements of the genetic modifying system described herein. In some embodiments, expression of elements of the genetic modifying system described herein can be driven by the CBh promoter or other ubiquitous promoter. Where the element of the genetic modifying system is an RNA, its expression can be driven by a Pol III promoter, such as a U6 promoter. In some embodiments, the two are combined.

Cell-based Vector Amplification and Expression

Vectors may be introduced and propagated in a prokaryotic cell or eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryotic cell or as an intermediate vector in the production of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryotic cell (e.g., amplifying a plasmid as part of a viral vector packaging system). The vectors can be viral-based or non-viral based. In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector and express one or more nucleic acids, such as to provide a source of one or more proteins for delivery to a host cell or host organism.

Vectors can be designed for expression of one or more elements of the genetic modifying system described herein (e.g., nucleic acid transcripts, proteins, enzymes, and combinations thereof) in a suitable host cell. In some embodiments, the suitable host cell is a prokaryotic cell. Suitable host cells include, but are not limited to, bacterial cells, yeast cells, insect cells, and mammalian cells. In some embodiments, the suitable host cell is a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments the host cell is a cell to be modified by a genetic modifying system. In some embodiments the host cell is a producer cell capable of producing particles (e.g., virus particles, virus like particles, exosomes, and/or the like) that can be used to deliver a genetic modifying system or component thereof to a cell.

In some embodiments, the suitable host cell is a suitable bacterial cell. Suitable bacterial cells include but are not limited to bacterial cells from the bacteria of the species Escherichia coli. Many suitable strains of E. coli are known in the art for expression of vectors. These include, but are not limited to Pir1, Stbl2, Stbl3, Stbl4, TOP10, XL1 Blue, and XL10 Gold. In some embodiments, the host cell is a suitable insect cell. Suitable insect cells include those from Spodoptera frugiperda. Suitable strains of S. frugiperda cells include, but are not limited to, Sf9 and Sf21. In some embodiments, the host cell is a suitable yeast cell. In some embodiments, the yeast cell can be from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In some embodiments, the host cell is a suitable mammalian cell. Many types of mammalian cells have been developed to express vectors. Suitable mammalian cells include, but are not limited to, HEK293, Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells (CHOs), mouse myeloma cells, HeLa, U2OS, A549, HT1080, CAD, P19, NIH 3T3, L929, N2a, MCF-7, Y79, SO-Rb50, HepG G2, DIKX-X11, J558 L, Baby hamster kidney cells (BHK), and chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEFs). Suitable host cells are discussed further in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). In some embodiments, the suitable host cell is a fish cell, more particularly a catfish cell, including but not limited to, fish embryonic stem cells, fish induced pluripotent stem cells, fish blastocyst cells, fish zygotes, or other fish cells described elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, the vector can be a yeast expression vector. Examples of vectors for expression in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae include pYepSecl (Baldari, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 229-234), pMFa (Kuijan and Herskowitz, 1982. Cell 30: 933-943), pJRY88 (Schultz et al., 1987. Gene 54: 113-123), pYES2 (Invitrogen Corporation, San Diego, Calif.), and picZ (InVitrogen Corp, San Diego, Calif.). As used herein, a “yeast expression vector” refers to a nucleic acid that contains one or more sequences encoding an RNA and/or polypeptide and may further contain any desired elements that control the expression of the nucleic acid(s), as well as any elements that enable the replication and maintenance of the expression vector inside the yeast cell. Many suitable yeast expression vectors and features thereof are known in the art; for example, various vectors and techniques are illustrated in in Yeast Protocols, 2nd edition, Xiao, W., ed. (Humana Press, New York, 2007) and Buckholz, R. G. and Gleeson, M. A. (1991) Biotechnology (NY) 9(11): 1067-72. Yeast vectors can contain, without limitation, a centromeric (CEN) sequence, an autonomous replication sequence (ARS), a promoter, such as an RNA Polymerase III promoter, operably linked to a sequence or gene of interest, a terminator such as an RNA polymerase III terminator, an origin of replication, and a marker gene (e.g., auxotrophic, antibiotic, or other selectable markers). Examples of expression vectors for use in yeast may include plasmids, yeast artificial chromosomes, 2 μ plasmids, yeast integrative plasmids, yeast replicative plasmids, shuttle vectors, and episomal plasmids.

In some embodiments, the vector is a baculovirus vector or expression vector and can be suitable for expression of polynucleotides and/or proteins in insect cells. In some embodiments, the suitable host cell is an insect cell. Baculovirus vectors available for expression of proteins in cultured insect cells (e.g., SF9 cells) include the pAc series (Smith, et al., 1983. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3: 2156-2165) and the pVL series (Lucklow and Summers, 1989. Virology 170: 31-39). rAAV (recombinant Adeno-associated viral) vectors are preferably produced in insect cells, e.g., Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 insect cells, grown in serum-free suspension culture. Serum-free insect cells can be purchased from commercial vendors, e.g., Sigma Aldrich (EX-CELL 405). Baculoviral vectors have been used to introduce transgenes to fish. See e.g., Huang et al., 2011. J Virol Methods. 2011 May;173(2):294-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.02.022 and Wang et al., Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Nov 27;19(12):3767. doi: 10.3390/ijms19123767, which are incorporated by reference as if expressed in their entireties herein and can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the vector is a mammalian expression vector. In some embodiments, the mammalian expression vector is capable of expressing one or more polynucleotides and/or polypeptides in a mammalian cell. Examples of mammalian expression vectors include, but are not limited to, pCDM8 (Seed, 1987. Nature 329: 840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al., 1987. EMBO J. 6: 187-195). The mammalian expression vector can include one or more suitable regulatory elements capable of controlling expression of the one or more polynucleotides and/or proteins in the mammalian cell. For example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma, adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus, simian virus 40, and others disclosed herein and known in the art. More detail on suitable regulatory elements is provided elsewhere herein.

For other suitable expression vectors and vector systems for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells see, e.g., Chapters 16 and 17 of Sambrook, et al., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL. 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.

In some embodiments, the vector can be a fusion vector or fusion expression vector. In some embodiments, fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to a protein encoded therein, such as to the amino terminus, carboxy terminus, or both of a recombinant protein. Such fusion vectors can serve one or more purposes, such as: (i) to increase expression of recombinant protein; (ii) to increase the solubility of the recombinant protein; and (iii) to aid in the purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand in affinity purification. In some embodiments, expression of polynucleotides (such as non-coding polynucleotides) and proteins in prokaryotes can be carried out in Escherichia coli with vectors containing constitutive or inducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion or non-fusion polynucleotides and/or proteins. In some embodiments, the fusion expression vector can include a proteolytic cleavage site, which can be introduced at the junction of the fusion vector backbone or other fusion moiety and the recombinant polynucleotide or protein to enable separation of the recombinant polynucleotide or protein from the fusion vector backbone or other fusion moiety subsequent to purification of the fusion polynucleotide or protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognition sequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Example fusion expression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith and Johnson, 1988. Gene 67: 31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.) and pRIT5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) that fuse glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A, respectively, to the target recombinant protein. Examples of suitable inducible non-fusion E. coli expression vectors include pTrc (Amrann et al., (1988) Gene 69:301-315) and pET 11d (Studier et al., GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990) 60-89).

In some embodiments, one or more vectors driving expression of one or more elements of a genetic modifying system described herein are introduced into a host cell such that expression of the elements of the delivery system described herein direct formation of a genetic modifying system complex (e.g., a CRISPR-Cas complex) at one or more target sites at on a target polynucleotide, such as in a target cell or target cell genome. For example, a CRISPR-Cas effector protein describe herein and a nucleic acid component (e.g., a guide polynucleotide) can each be operably linked to separate regulatory elements on separate vectors. RNA(s) of different elements of a genetic modifying (e.g., CRISPR-Cas) system can be delivered to an animal, plant, microorganism or cell thereof to produce an animal (e.g., as a fish, particularly a catfish)), that constitutively, inducibly, or conditionally expresses different elements of the genetic modifying (e.g., CRISPR-Cas) system described herein that incorporates one or more elements of the genetic modifying system (e.g., a CRISPR-Cas system) described herein or contains one or more cells that incorporates and/or expresses one or more elements of the genetic modifying (e.g., CRISPR-Cas) system described herein.

Cell-Free Vector and Polynucleotide Expression

In some embodiments, the polynucleotide encoding one or more features of the genetic modifying system or other polynucleotide described herein can be expressed from a vector or suitable polynucleotide in a cell-free in vitro system. In other words, the polynucleotide can be transcribed and optionally translated in vitro. In vitro transcription/translation systems and appropriate vectors are generally known in the art and commercially available. Generally, in vitro transcription and in vitro translation systems replicate the processes of RNA and protein synthesis, respectively, outside of the cellular environment. Vectors and suitable polynucleotides for in vitro transcription can include T7, SP6, T3, promoter regulatory sequences that can be recognized and acted upon by an appropriate polymerase to transcribe the polynucleotide or vector.

In vitro translation can be stand-alone (e.g., translation of a purified polyribonucleotide) or linked/coupled to transcription. In some embodiments, the cell-free (or in vitro) translation system can include extracts from rabbit reticulocytes, wheat germ, and/or E. coli. The extracts can include various macromolecular components that are needed for translation of exogenous RNA (e.g., 70S or 80S ribosomes, tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA, synthetases, initiation, elongation factors, termination factors, etc.). Other components can be included or added during the translation reaction, including but not limited to, amino acids, energy sources (ATP, GTP), energy regenerating systems (creatine phosphate and creatine phosphokinase (eukaryotic systems)) (phosphoenol pyruvate and pyruvate kinase for bacterial systems), and other co-factors (Mg²⁺, K+, etc.). As previously mentioned, in vitro translation can be based on RNA or DNA starting material. Some translation systems can utilize an RNA template as starting material (e.g., reticulocyte lysates and wheat germ extracts). Some translation systems can utilize a DNA template as a starting material (e.g., E coli-based systems). In these systems transcription and translation are coupled and DNA is first transcribed into RNA, which is subsequently translated. Suitable standard and coupled cell-free translation systems are generally known in the art and are commercially available.

Vector Features

The vectors can include additional features that can confer one or more functionalities to the vector, the polynucleotide to be delivered, a virus or other particle (e.g., viral like particle or exosome) produced there from, or polypeptide expressed thereof. Such features include, but are not limited to, regulatory elements, selectable markers, molecular identifiers (e.g., molecular barcodes), stabilizing elements, and the like. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector and additional features included can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression desired, etc.

Regulatory Elements

In certain embodiments, the polynucleotides and/or vectors thereof described herein (such as the genetic modifying system polynucleotides described herein) can include one or more regulatory elements that can be operatively linked to the polynucleotide. The term “regulatory element” is intended to include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), other expression control elements (e.g., transcription termination signals, such as polyadenylation signals and poly-U sequences) and cellular localization signals (e.g., nuclear localization or export signals). Such regulatory elements are described, for example, in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). Regulatory elements include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cell and those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences). A tissue-specific promoter can direct expression primarily in a desired tissue of interest, such as muscle, neuron, bone, skin, blood, specific organs (e.g., liver, pancreas), or particular cell types (e.g., lymphocytes). Regulatory elements may also direct expression in a temporal-dependent manner, such as in a cell-cycle dependent or developmental stage-dependent manner, which may or may not also be tissue or cell-type specific. In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more pol III promoter (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol III promoters), one or more pol II promoters (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol II promoters), one or more pol I promoters (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), or combinations thereof. Examples of pol III promoters include, but are not limited to, U6 and H1 promoters. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to, the retroviral Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally with the RSV enhancer), the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally with the CMV enhancer) (see, e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41:521-530 (1985)), the SV40 promoter, the dihydrofolate reductase promoter, the (3-actin promoter, the phosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EFla promoter. Also encompassed by the term “regulatory element” are enhancer elements, such as WPRE; CMV enhancers; the R-U5′ segment in LTR of HTLV-I (Mol. Cell. Biol., Vol. 8(1), p. 466-472, 1988); SV40 enhancer; and the intron sequence between exons 2 and 3 of rabbit β-globin (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., Vol. 78(3), p. 1527-31, 1981).

In some embodiments, the regulatory sequence can be a regulatory sequence described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,776,321, U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2011/0027239, or International Patent Publication No. WO 2011/028929, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. In some embodiments, the vector can contain a minimal promoter. In some embodiments, the minimal promoter is the Mecp2 promoter, tRNA promoter, or U6. In a further embodiment, the minimal promoter is tissue specific. In some embodiments, the length of the vector polynucleotide the minimal promoters and polynucleotide sequences is less than 4.4 Kb.

To express a polynucleotide, the vector can include one or more transcriptional and/or translational initiation regulatory sequences, e.g., promoters, that direct the transcription of the gene and/or translation of the encoded protein in a cell. In some embodiments a constitutive promoter may be employed. Suitable constitutive promoters for mammalian cells are generally known in the art and include, but are not limited to SV40, CAG, CMV, EF-1α, β-actin, RSV, and PGK. Suitable constitutive promoters for bacterial cells, yeast cells, and fungal cells are generally known in the art, such as a T-7 promoter for bacterial expression and an alcohol dehydrogenase promoter for expression in yeast.

In some embodiments, the regulatory element can be a regulated promoter. As used herein, “regulated promoter” refers to promoters that direct gene expression not constitutively, but in a temporally- and/or spatially-regulated manner, and includes tissue-specific, tissue-preferred and inducible promoters. Regulated promoters include conditional promoters and inducible promoters. In some embodiments, conditional promoters can be employed to direct expression of a polynucleotide in a specific cell type, under certain environmental conditions, and/or during a specific state of development. Suitable tissue specific promoters can include, but are not limited to, liver specific promoters (e.g. APOA2, SERPIN A1 (hAAT), CYP3A4, and MIR122), pancreatic cell promoters (e.g. INS, IRS2, Pdx1, Alx3, Ppy), cardiac specific promoters (e.g. Myh6 (alpha MHC), MYL2 (MLC-2v), TNI3 (cTnl), NPPA (ANF), Slc8a1 (Ncx1)), central nervous system cell promoters (SYN1, GFAP, INA, NES, MOBP, MBP, TH, FOXA2 (HNF3 beta)), skin cell specific promoters (e.g. FLG, K14, TGM3), immune cell specific promoters, (e.g. ITGAM, CD43 promoter, CD14 promoter, CD45 promoter, CD68 promoter), urogenital cell specific promoters (e.g. Pbsn, Upk2, Sbp, Fer114), endothelial cell specific promoters (e.g. ENG), pluripotent and embryonic germ layer cell specific promoters (e.g. Oct4, NANOG, Synthetic Oct4, T brachyury, NES, SOX17, FOXA2, MIR122), and muscle cell specific promoter (e.g. myostatin, Desmin). Other tissue and/or cell specific promoters are generally known in the art and are within the scope of this disclosure.

Inducible/conditional promoters can be positively inducible/conditional promoters (e.g. a promoter that activates transcription of the polynucleotide upon appropriate interaction with an activated activator, or an inducer (compound, environmental condition, or other stimulus) or a negative/conditional inducible promoter (e.g. a promoter that is repressed (e.g. bound by a repressor) until the repressor condition of the promotor is removed (e.g. inducer binds a repressor bound to the promoter stimulating release of the promoter by the repressor or removal of a chemical repressor from the promoter environment). The inducer can be a compound, environmental condition, or other stimulus. Thus, inducible/conditional promoters can be responsive to any suitable stimuli such as chemical, biological, or other molecular agents, temperature, light, and/or pH. Suitable inducible/conditional promoters include, but are not limited to, Tet-On, Tet-Off, Lac promoter, pBad, AlcA, LexA, Hsp70 promoter, Hsp90 promoter, pDawn, XVE/OlexA, GVG, and pOp/LhGR.

Examples of promoters that are inducible and that can allow for spatiotemporal control of gene editing or gene expression may use a form of energy. The form of energy may include but is not limited to sound energy, electromagnetic radiation, chemical energy and/or thermal energy. Examples of inducible systems include tetracycline inducible promoters (Tet-On or Tet-Off), small molecule two-hybrid transcription activations systems (FKBP, ABA, etc.), or light inducible systems (Phytochrome, LOV domains, or cryptochrome)., such as a Light Inducible Transcriptional Effector (LITE) that direct changes in transcriptional activity in a sequence-specific manner. The components of a light inducible system may include one or more elements of the CRISPR-Cas system described herein, a light-responsive cytochrome heterodimer (e.g., from Arabidopsis thaliana), and a transcriptional activation/repression domain. In some embodiments, the vector can include one or more of the inducible DNA binding proteins provided in International Patent Publication No. WO 2014/018423 and U.S. Patent Publication Nos., 2015/0291966, 2017/0166903, 2019/0203212, which describe e.g., embodiments of inducible DNA binding proteins and methods of use and can be adapted for use with the present invention.

In some embodiments, transient or inducible expression can be achieved by including, for example, chemical-regulated promotors, i.e., whereby the application of an exogenous chemical induces gene expression. Modulation of gene expression can also be obtained by including a chemical-repressible promoter, where application of the chemical represses gene expression. Chemical-inducible promoters include, but are not limited to, the maize 1n2-2 promoter, activated by benzene sulfonamide herbicide safeners (De Veylder et al., (1997) Plant Cell Physiol 38:568-77), the maize GST promoter (GST-11-27, WO93/01294), activated by hydrophobic electrophilic compounds used as pre-emergent herbicides, and the tobacco PR-1 a promoter (Ono et al., (2004) Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68:803-7) activated by salicylic acid. Promoters that are regulated by antibiotics, such as tetracycline-inducible and tetracycline-repressible promoters (Gatz et al., (1991) Mol Gen Genet 227:229-37; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,814,618 and 5,789,156) can also be used herein.

In some embodiments where multiple elements are to be expressed from the same vector or within the same vector system, different promoters or regulatory elements can be used for each element to be expressed to avoid or limit loss of expression due to competition between promoters and/or other regulatory elements.

In some embodiments, the polynucleotide, vector or system thereof can include one or more elements capable of translocating and/or expressing a polynucleotide to/in a specific cell component or organelle. Such organelles can include, but are not limited to, nucleus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplast, mitochondria, vacuole, lysosome, cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, cell wall, peroxisome, centrioles, etc. Such regulatory elements can include, but are not limited to, nuclear localization signals (examples of which are described in greater detail elsewhere herein), any such as those that are annotated in the LocSigDB database (see e.g., genome.unmc.edu/LocSigDB/ and Negi et al., 2015. Database. 2015: bav003; doi: 10.1093/database/bav003), nuclear export signals (e.g., LXXXLXXLXL (SEQ ID NO: 52) and others described elsewhere herein), endoplasmic reticulum localization/retention signals (e.g., KDEL (SEQ ID NO: 53), KDXX (SEQ ID NO: 54), KKXX (SEQ ID NO: 55), KXX, and others described elsewhere herein; and see e.g., Liu et al. 2007 Mol. Biol. Cell. 18(3):1073-1082 and Gorleku et al., 2011. J. Biol. Chem. 286:39573-39584), mitochondria targeting signals (see e.g., Chin, R. M., et al, 2018, Cell Reports. 22:2818-2826, particularly at FIG. 2; Doyle et al. 2013. PLoS ONE 8, e67938; Funes et al. 2002. J. Biol. Chem. 277:6051-6058; Matouschek et al. 1997. PNAS USA 85:2091-2095; Oca-Cossio et al., 2003. 165:707-720; Waltner et al., 1996. J. Biol. Chem. 271:21226-21230; Wilcox et al., 2005. PNAS USA 102:15435-15440; Galanis et al., 1991. FEBS Lett 282:425-430), and peroxisome targeting signals (e.g. (S/A/C)-(K/R/H)-(L/A), SLK, (R/K)-(L/V/I)-XXXXX-(H/Q)-(L/A/F) (SEQ ID NO: 56)). Suitable protein targeting motifs can also be designed or identified using any suitable database or prediction tool, including but not limited to Minimotif Miner (minimotifminer. org, mitominer.mrc-mbu.cam.ac.uk/release-4.0/embodiment.do?name=Protein%20MTS), LocDB (see above), PTSs predictor, TargetP-2.0 www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/TargetP/), ChloroP (www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/ChloroP/); NetNES (www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetNES/), Predotar (urgi.versailles.inra.fr/predotar/), and SignalP (www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/SignalP/).

Selectable Markers and Tags

One or more of the polynucleotides described herein, such as those of or encoding a genetic modifying system and/or exogenous gene can be operably linked, fused to, or otherwise modified to include a polynucleotide that encodes or is a selectable marker or tag, which can be a polynucleotide or polypeptide. In some embodiments, the polypeptide encoding a polypeptide selectable marker is incorporated in the genetic modifying system polynucleotide or other polynucleotide of the present disclosure such that the selectable marker polypeptide, when translated, is inserted between two amino acids between the N- and C-terminus of the genetic modifying system polypeptide (or other polypeptide of the present disclosure) or at the N- and/or C-terminus of the genetic modifying system polypeptide (or other polypeptide of the present disclosure). In some embodiments, the selectable marker or tag is a polynucleotide barcode or unique molecular identifier (UMI).

It will be appreciated that the polynucleotide encoding such selectable markers or tags can be incorporated into a polynucleotide encoding one or more components of the genetic modifying system (or other polynucleotide) described herein in an appropriate manner to allow expression of the selectable marker or tag. Such techniques and methods are described elsewhere herein and will be instantly appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art in view of this disclosure. Many such selectable markers and tags are generally known in the art and are intended to be within the scope of this disclosure.

Suitable selectable markers and tags include, but are not limited to, affinity tags, such as chitin binding protein (CBP), maltose binding protein (MBP), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), poly(His) tag; solubilization tags such as thioredoxin (TRX) and poly(NANP), MBP, and GST; chromatography tags such as those consisting of polyanionic amino acids, such as FLAG-tag; epitope tags such as V5-tag, Myc-tag, HA-tag and NE-tag; protein tags that can allow specific enzymatic modification (such as biotinylation by biotin ligase) or chemical modification (such as reaction with FlAsH-EDT2 for fluorescence imaging), DNA and/or RNA segments that contain restriction enzyme or other enzyme cleavage sites; DNA segments that encode products that provide resistance against otherwise toxic compounds including antibiotics, such as, spectinomycin, ampicillin, kanamycin, tetracycline, Basta, neomycin phosphotransferase II (NEO), hygromycin phosphotransferase (HPT)) and the like; DNA and/or RNA segments that encode products that are otherwise lacking in the recipient cell (e.g., tRNA genes, auxotrophic markers); DNA and/or RNA segments that encode products which can be readily identified (e.g., phenotypic markers such as β-galactosidase, GUS; fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), cyan (CFP), yellow (YFP), red (RFP), luciferase, and cell surface proteins); polynucleotides that can generate one or more new primer sites for PCR (e.g., the juxtaposition of two DNA sequences not previously juxtaposed), DNA sequences not acted upon or acted upon by a restriction endonuclease or other DNA modifying enzyme, chemical, etc.; epitope tags (e.g. GFP, FLAG- and His-tags), and, DNA sequences that make a molecular barcode or unique molecular identifier (UMI), DNA sequences required for a specific modification (e.g., methylation) that allows its identification. Other suitable markers will be appreciated by those of skill in the art.

Selectable markers and tags can be operably linked to one or more components of the genetic modifying system (or other polypeptide) described herein via suitable linker, such as a glycine or glycine serine linkers as short as GS or GG up to (GGGGG)3 (SEQ ID NO: 57) or (GGGGS)3(SEQ ID NO: 58). Other suitable linkers are described elsewhere herein.

Targeting Moieties

The vector or vector system (or other polynucleotide) can include one or more polynucleotides that are or encode one or more targeting moieties. In some embodiments, the targeting moiety encoding polynucleotides can be included in the vector or vector system, such as a viral vector system, such that they are expressed within and/or on the virus particle(s) produced such that the virus particles can be targeted to specific cells, tissues, organs, etc. In some embodiments, the targeting moiety encoding polynucleotides can be included in the vector or vector system such that the genetic modifying system polynucleotide(s) and/or products expressed therefrom include the targeting moiety and can be targeted to specific cells, tissues, organs, etc. In some embodiments, such as non-viral carriers, the targeting moiety can be attached to the carrier (e.g., polymer, lipid, inorganic molecule etc.) and can be capable of targeting the carrier and any attached or associated genetic modifying system polynucleotide(s) to specific cells, tissues, organs, etc. In some embodiments, the targeting moieties can target integrins on cell surfaces. Optionally, the binding affinity of the targeting moiety is in the range of 1 nM to 1 μM.

Exemplary targeting moieties that can be included are described elsewhere herein. See description related to “Targeted Delivery” and/or “Responsive Delivery” herein.

Codon Optimization

As described elsewhere herein, the polynucleotide encoding one or more embodiments of the genetic modifying system or other polypeptides (such as those to be delivered to a target cell) of the present disclosure described herein can be codon optimized. In some embodiments, one or more polynucleotides contained in a vector (“vector polynucleotides”) described herein that are in addition to an optionally codon optimized polynucleotide encoding embodiments of the genetic modifying system described herein can be codon optimized. In general, codon optimization refers to a process of modifying a nucleic acid sequence for enhanced expression in the host cells of interest by replacing at least one codon (e.g., about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more codons) of the native sequence with codons that are more frequently or most frequently used in the genes of that host cell while maintaining the native amino acid sequence. Various species exhibit particular bias for certain codons of a particular amino acid. Codon bias (differences in codon usage between organisms) often correlates with the efficiency of translation of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is in turn believed to be dependent on, among other things, the properties of the codons being translated and the availability of particular transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. The predominance of selected tRNAs in a cell is generally a reflection of the codons used most frequently in peptide synthesis. Accordingly, genes can be tailored for optimal gene expression in a given organism based on codon optimization. Codon usage tables are readily available, for example, at the “Codon Usage Database” available at www.kazusa.orjp/codon/ and these tables can be adapted in a number of ways. See Nakamura, Y., et al. “Codon usage tabulated from the international DNA sequence databases: status for the year 2000” Nucl. Acids Res. 28:292 (2000). Computer algorithms for codon optimizing a particular sequence for expression in a particular host cell are also available, such as Gene Forge (Aptagen; Jacobus, P A), are also available. In some embodiments, one or more codons (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more, or all codons) in a sequence encoding a DNA/RNA-targeting Cas protein corresponds to the most frequently used codon for a particular amino acid. As to codon usage in yeast, reference is made to the online Yeast Genome database available at www.yeastgenome.org/community/codon_usage.shtml, or Codon selection in yeast, Bennetzen and Hall, J Biol Chem. 1982 Mar 25;257(6):3026-31. As to codon usage in plants including algae, reference is made to Codon usage in higher plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria, Campbell and Gowri, Plant Physiol. 1990 Jan; 92(1): 1-11.; as well as Codon usage in plant genes, Murray et al, Nucleic Acids Res. 1989 Jan 25;17(2):477-98; or Selection on the codon bias of chloroplast and cyanelle genes in different plant and algal lineages, Morton B R, J Mol Evol. 1998 Apr;46(4):449-59.

The vector polynucleotide can be codon optimized for expression in a specific cell-type, tissue type, organ type, and/or subject type, such as a fish cell. In some embodiments, a codon optimized sequence is a sequence optimized for expression in a eukaryote, e.g., fish (i.e., being optimized for expression in a fish or fish cell, particularly a catfish). Such codon optimized sequences are within the ambit of the ordinary skilled artisan in view of the description herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is codon optimized for a specific cell type. Such cell types can include, but are not limited to, epithelial cells (including skin cells, cells lining the gastrointestinal tract, cells lining other hollow organs), nerve cells (nerves, brain cells, spinal column cells, nerve support cells (e.g. astrocytes, glial cells, Schwann cells etc.), muscle cells (e.g. cardiac muscle, smooth muscle cells, and skeletal muscle cells), connective tissue cells (fat and other soft tissue padding cells, bone cells, tendon cells, cartilage cells), blood cells, stem cells (including embryonic stem cells, primordial germ cells, primordial germ cell like cells, pluripotent stem cells, totipotent stem cells, blastocysts, etc.) and other progenitor cells, immune system cells, germ cells, and combinations thereof. Such codon optimized sequences are within the ambit of the ordinary skilled artisan in view of the description herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is codon optimized for a specific tissue type. Such tissue types can include, but are not limited to, muscle tissue, connective tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue. Such codon optimized sequences are within the ambit of the ordinary skilled artisan in view of the description herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide is codon optimized for a specific organ. Such organs include, but are not limited to, muscles, skin, intestines, liver, spleen, brain, lungs, stomach, heart, kidneys, gallbladder, pancreas, bladder, thyroid, bone, blood vessels, blood, and combinations thereof. Such codon optimized sequences are within the ambit of the ordinary skilled artisan in view of the description herein.

In some embodiments, a vector polynucleotide is codon optimized for expression in particular cells, such as prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. The eukaryotic cells may be those of or derived from a particular organism, such as a fish, and more particularly a catfish.

Vector Construction

The vectors described herein can be constructed using any suitable process or technique. In some embodiments, one or more suitable recombination and/or cloning methods or techniques can be used to the vector(s) described herein. Suitable recombination and/or cloning techniques and/or methods can include, but not limited to, those described in U.S. Patent Publication No. US 2004/0171156 Al. Other suitable methods and techniques are described elsewhere herein.

Construction of recombinant AAV vectors are described in a number of publications, including U.S. Pat. No. 5,173,414; Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260 (1985); Tratschin, et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072-2081 (1984); Hermonat & Muzyczka, PNAS 81:6466-6470 (1984); and Samulski et al., J. Virol. 63:03822-3828 (1989). Any of the techniques and/or methods can be used and/or adapted for constructing an AAV or other vectors described herein. nAAV vectors are discussed elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more insertion sites, such as a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence (also referred to as a “cloning site”). In some embodiments, one or more insertion sites (e.g., about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more insertion sites) are located upstream and/or downstream of one or more sequence elements of one or more vectors. When multiple different guide polynucleotides are used, a single expression construct may be used to target nucleic acid-targeting activity to multiple different, corresponding target sequences within a cell. For example, a single vector may comprise about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, or more guide s polynucleotides. In some embodiments, about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more such guide-polynucleotide-containing vectors may be provided, and optionally delivered to a cell.

Delivery vehicles, vectors, particles, nanoparticles, formulations and components thereof for expression of one or more elements of a genetic modifying system or other polynucleotides described herein are as used in the foregoing documents, such as International Patent Publication No. WO 2014/093622 and are discussed in greater detail herein.

Viral Vectors

In some embodiments, the vector is a viral vector. The term of art “viral vector” and as used herein in this context refers to polynucleotide based vectors that contain one or more elements from or based upon one or more elements of a virus that can be capable of expressing and packaging a polynucleotide, such as a genetic modifying system polynucleotide of the present invention, into a virus particle and producing said virus particle when used alone or with one or more other viral vectors (such as in a viral vector system). Viral vectors and systems thereof can be used for producing viral particles for delivery of and/or expression of one or more components of the genetic modifying system described herein. The viral vector can be part of a viral vector system involving multiple vectors. In some embodiments, systems incorporating multiple viral vectors can increase the safety of these systems. Suitable viral vectors can include retroviral-based vectors, lentiviral-based vectors, adenoviral-based vectors, adeno associated vectors, helper-dependent adenoviral (HdAd) vectors, hybrid adenoviral vectors, herpes simplex virus-based vectors, poxvirus-based vectors, and Epstein-Barr virus-based vectors. Other embodiments of viral vectors and viral particles produce therefrom are described elsewhere herein. In some embodiments, the viral vectors are configured to produce replication incompetent viral particles for improved safety of these systems.

In certain embodiments, the virus structural component, which can be encoded by one or more polynucleotides in a viral vector or vector system, comprises one or more capsid proteins including an entire capsid. In certain embodiments, such as wherein a viral capsid comprises multiple copies of different proteins, the delivery system can provide one or more of the same protein or a mixture of such proteins. For example, AAV comprises 3 capsid proteins, VP1, VP2, and VP3, thus delivery systems of the invention can comprise one or more of VP1, and/or one or more of VP2, and/or one or more of VP3. Accordingly, the present invention is applicable to a virus within the family Adenoviridae, such as Atadenovirus, e.g., Ovine atadenovirus D, Aviadenovirus, e.g., Fowl aviadenovirus A, Ichtadenovirus, e.g., Sturgeon ichtadenovirus A, Mastadenovirus (which includes adenoviruses such as all human adenoviruses), e.g., Human mastadenovirus C, and Siadenovirus, e.g., Frog siadenovirus A. Thus, a virus of within the family Adenoviridae is contemplated as within the invention with discussion herein as to adenovirus applicable to other family members. Target-specific AAV capsid variants can be used or selected. Non-limiting examples include capsid variants selected to bind to chronic myelogenous leukemia cells, human CD34 PBPC cells, breast cancer cells, cells of lung, heart, dermal fibroblasts, melanoma cells, stem cell, glioblastoma cells, coronary artery endothelial cells and keratinocytes. See, e.g., Buning et al, 2015, Current Opinion in Pharmacology 24, 94-104. From teachings herein and knowledge in the art as to modifications of adenovirus (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,410,129, 7,344,872, 7,256,036, 6,911,199, 6,740,525; Matthews, “Capsid-Incorporation of Antigens into Adenovirus Capsid Proteins for a Vaccine Approach,” Mol Pharm, 8(1): 3-11 (2011)), as well as regarding modifications of AAV, the skilled person can readily obtain a modified adenovirus that has a large payload protein or a CRISPR-protein, despite that heretofore it was not expected that such a large protein could be provided on an adenovirus. And as to the viruses related to adenovirus mentioned herein, as well as to the viruses related to AAV mentioned elsewhere herein, the teachings herein as to modifying adenovirus and AAV, respectively, can be applied to those viruses without undue experimentation from this disclosure and the knowledge in the art.

In some embodiments, the viral vector is configured such that when the cargo is packaged the cargo(s) (e.g., one or more components of the genetic modifying system, including but not limited to a Cas effector), is external to the capsid or virus particle. In the sense that it is not inside the capsid (enveloped or encompassed with the capsid) but is externally exposed so that it can contact the target genomic DNA. In some embodiments, the viral vector is configured such that all the cargo(s) are contained within the capsid after packaging.

Split Viral Vector Systems

When the viral vector or vector system (be it a retroviral (e.g., AAV) or lentiviral vector) is designed so as to position the cargo(s) (e.g., one or more CRISPR-Cas system components) at the internal surface of the capsid once formed, the cargo(s) will fill most or all of internal volume of the capsid. In other embodiments, the genetic modifying effector (e.g., Cas) (or other exogenous gene or protein) may be modified or divided so as to occupy a less of the capsid internal volume. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the genetic modifying system or component thereof (e.g., a Cas effector protein) or other exogenous gene or protein can be divided in two portions, which can be packaged in separate viral or viral like particles. In certain embodiments, by splitting the genetic modifying system or component thereof in two (or more) portions, space is made available to link one or more heterologous domains to one or both genetic modifying system component (e.g., Cas protein) or other protein portions. Such systems can be referred to as “split vector systems”. This split protein approach is also described elsewhere herein. When the concept is applied to a vector system, it thus describes putting pieces of the split proteins on different vectors thus reducing the payload of any one vector. This approach can facilitate delivery of systems where the total system size is close to or exceeds the packaging capacity of the vector. This is independent of any regulation of the genetic modifying system (e.g., a CRISPR-Cas) system that can be achieved with a split system or split protein design.

Split CRISPR proteins or other exogenous proteins whose encoding polynucleotides can be incorporated into the viral or other vectors described herein are set forth elsewhere herein and in documents incorporated herein by reference in further detail herein. In certain embodiments, each part of a split protein are attached to a member of a specific binding pair, and when bound with each other, the members of the specific binding pair maintain the parts of the spit protein in proximity. In certain embodiments, each part of a split protein is associated with an inducible binding pair. An inducible binding pair is one which is capable of being switched “on” or “off” by a protein or small molecule that binds to both members of the inducible binding pair. In general, according to the invention, some proteins may preferably split between domains, leaving domains intact. Where the cargo is a Cas protein, non-limiting examples of such Cas proteins include, without limitation, Cas protein, and orthologues. Non-limiting examples of split points include, with reference to SpCas9: a split position between 202A/203S; a split position between 255F/256D; a split position between 310E/311I; a split position between 534R/535K; a split position between 572E/573C; a split position between 713S/714G; a split position between 1003 L/104E; a split position between 1054G/1055E; a split position between 1114N/1115S; a split position between 1152K/1153S; a split position between 1245K/1246G; or a split between 1098 and 1099. Corresponding positions in other Cas proteins can be appreciated in view of these positions made with reference to SpCas9.

Retroviral and Lentiviral Vectors

Retroviral vectors can be composed of cis-acting long terminal repeats with packaging capacity for up to 6-10 kb of foreign sequence. The minimum cis-acting LTRs are sufficient for replication and packaging of the vectors, which are then used to integrate the therapeutic gene into the target cell to provide permanent transgene expression. Suitable retroviral vectors for the delivery of a cargo (e.g., a genetic modifying systems or other exogenous polynucleotide) can include, but are not limited to, those vectors based upon murine leukemia virus (MuLV), gibbon ape leukemia virus (GaLV), Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), equine infections anemia (EIA), and combinations thereof (see, e.g., Buchscher et al., J. Virol. 66:2731-2739 (1992); Johann et al., J. Virol. 66:1635-1640 (1992); Sommnerfelt et al., Virol. 176:58-59 (1990); Wilson et al., J. Virol. 63:2374-2378 (1989); Miller et al., J. Virol. 65:2220-2224 (1991); WO1994026877). Other exemplary retroviral vectors are described elsewhere herein. Retroviruses have been used to deliver transgenes to fish. See e.g., Kurita et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Feb 3; 101(5): 1263-1267.

The tropism of a retrovirus can be altered by incorporating foreign envelope proteins, expanding the potential target population of target cells. Lentiviral vectors are retroviral vectors that are able to transduce or infect non-dividing cells and are described in greater detail elsewhere herein. A retrovirus can also be engineered to allow for conditional expression of the inserted transgene, such that only certain cell types are infected by the lentivirus.

Lentiviruses are complex retroviruses that have the ability to infect and express their genes in both mitotic and post-mitotic cells. Advantages of using a lentiviral approach can include the ability to transduce or infect non-dividing cells and their ability to typically produce high viral titers, which can increase efficiency or efficacy of production and delivery. Exemplary lentiviral vectors include, but are not limited to, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-based lentiviral vectors, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)-based lentiviral vectors, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-based lentiviral vectors, Moloney Murine Leukaemia Virus (Mo-MLV), Visna.maedi virus (VMV)-based lentiviral vector, carpine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV)-based lentiviral vector, bovine immune deficiency virus (BIV)-based lentiviral vector, and Equine infectious anemia (EIAV)-based lentiviral vector. In some embodiments, an HIV-based lentiviral vector system can be used. In some embodiments, a FIV-based lentiviral vector system can be used.

In some embodiments, the lentiviral vector is an EIAV-based lentiviral vector or vector system. See e.g., Balagaan, J Gene Med 2006; 8: 275-285; Binley et al., HUMAN GENE THERAPY 23:980-991 (September 2012)), which can be modified for use with the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the lentiviral vector or vector system thereof can be a first-generation lentiviral vector or vector system thereof. First-generation lentiviral vectors can contain a large portion of the lentivirus genome, including the gag and pol genes, other additional viral proteins (e.g., VSV-G) and other accessory genes (e.g., vif, vprm vpu, nef, and combinations thereof), regulatory genes (e.g., tat and/or rev) as well as the gene of interest between the LTRs. First generation lentiviral vectors can result in the production of virus particles that can be capable of replication in vivo, which may not be appropriate for some instances or applications.

In some embodiments, the lentiviral vector or vector system thereof can be a second-generation lentiviral vector or vector system thereof. Second-generation lentiviral vectors do not contain one or more accessory virulence factors and do not contain all components necessary for virus particle production on the same lentiviral vector. This can result in the production of a replication-incompetent virus particle and thus increase the safety of these systems over first-generation lentiviral vectors. In some embodiments, the second-generation vector lacks one or more accessory virulence factors (e.g., vif, vprm, vpu, nef, and combinations thereof). Unlike the first-generation lentiviral vectors, no single second generation lentiviral vector includes all features necessary to express and package a polynucleotide into a virus particle. In some embodiments, the envelope and packaging components are split between two different vectors with the gag, pol, rev, and tat genes being contained on one vector and the envelope protein (e.g., VSV-G) are contained on a second vector. The gene of interest, its promoter, and LTRs can be included on a third vector that can be used in conjunction with the other two vectors (packaging and envelope vectors) to generate a replication-incompetent virus particle.

In some embodiments, the lentiviral vector or vector system thereof can be a third-generation lentiviral vector or vector system thereof. Third-generation lentiviral vectors and vector systems thereof have increased safety over first- and second-generation lentiviral vectors and systems thereof because, for example, the various components of the viral genome are split between two or more different vectors but used together in vitro to make virus particles, they can lack the tat gene (when a constitutively active promoter is included up-stream of the LTRs), and they can include one or more deletions in the 3 ′LTR to create self-inactivating (SIN) vectors having disrupted promoter/enhancer activity of the LTR. In some embodiments, a third-generation lentiviral vector system can include (i) a vector plasmid that contains the polynucleotide of interest and upstream promoter that are flanked by the 5′ and 3′ LTRs, which can optionally include one or more deletions present in one or both of the LTRs to render the vector self-inactivating; (ii) a “packaging vector(s)” that can contain one or more genes involved in packaging a polynucleotide into a virus particle that is produced by the system (e.g. gag, pol, and rev) and upstream regulatory sequences (e.g. promoter(s)) to drive expression of the features present on the packaging vector, and (iii) an “envelope vector” that contains one or more envelope protein genes and upstream promoters. In certain embodiments, the third-generation lentiviral vector system can include at least two packaging vectors, with the gag-pol being present on a different vector than the rev gene.

In some embodiments, self-inactivating lentiviral vectors with an siRNA targeting a common exon shared by HIV tat/rev, a nucleolar-localizing TAR decoy, and an anti—CCRS-specific hammerhead ribozyme (see, e.g., DiGiusto et al. (2010) Sci Transl Med 2:36ra43) can be used/and or adapted to deliver a genetic modifying system or exogenous polynucleotide of the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the pseudotype and infectivity or tropism of a lentivirus particle can be tuned by altering the type of envelope protein(s) included in the lentiviral vector or system thereof. As used herein, an “envelope protein” or “outer protein” means a protein exposed at the surface of a viral particle that is not a capsid protein. For example, envelope or outer proteins typically comprise proteins embedded in the envelope of the virus. In some embodiments, a lentiviral vector or vector system thereof can include a VSV-G envelope protein. VSV-G mediates viral attachment to an LDL receptor (LDLR) or an LDLR family member present on a host cell, which triggers endocytosis of the viral particle by the host cell. Because LDLR is expressed by a wide variety of cells, viral particles expressing the VSV-G envelope protein can infect or transduce a wide variety of cell types. Other suitable envelope proteins can be incorporated based on the host cell that a user desires to be infected by a virus particle produced from a lentiviral vector or system thereof described herein and can include, but are not limited to, feline endogenous virus envelope protein (RD114) (see e.g., Hanawa et al. Molec. Ther. 2002 5(3) 242-251), modified Sindbis virus envelope proteins (see e.g., Morizono et al. 2010. J. Virol. 84(14) 6923-6934; Morizono et al. 2001. J. Virol. 75:8016-8020; Morizono et al. 2009. J. Gene Med. 11:549-558; Morizono et al. 2006 Virology 355:71-81; Morizono et al J. Gene Med. 11:655-663, Morizono et al. 2005 Nat. Med. 11:346-352), baboon retroviral envelope protein (see e.g., Girard-Gagnepain et al. 2014. Blood. 124: 1221-1231); Tupaia paramyxovirus glycoproteins (see e.g., Enkirch T. et al., 2013. Gene Ther. 20:16-23); measles virus glycoproteins (see e.g., Funke et al. 2008. Molec. Ther. 16(8): 1427-1436), rabies virus envelope proteins, MLV envelope proteins, Ebola envelope proteins, baculovirus envelope proteins, Filovirus envelope proteins, hepatitis El and E2 envelope proteins, gp41 and gp120 of HIV, hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, M2 proteins of influenza virus, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the tropism of the resulting lentiviral particle can be tuned by incorporating cell targeting peptides into a lentiviral vector such that the cell targeting peptides are expressed on the surface of the resulting lentiviral particle. In some embodiments, a lentiviral vector can contain an envelope protein that is fused to a cell targeting protein (see e.g., Buchholz et al. 2015. Trends Biotechnol. 33:777-790; Bender et al. 2016. PLoS Pathog. 12(e1005461); and Friedrich et al. 2013. Mol. Ther. 2013. 21: 849-859).

In some embodiments, a split-intein-mediated approach to target lentiviral particles to a specific cell type can be used (see e.g., Chamoun-Emaneulli et al. 2015. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 112:2611-2617, Ramirez et al. 2013. Protein. Eng. Des. Sel. 26:215-233. In these embodiments, a lentiviral vector can contain one half of a splicing-deficient variant of the naturally split intein from Nostoc punctiforme fused to a cell targeting peptide and the same or different lentiviral vector can contain the other half of the split intein fused to an envelope protein, such as a binding-deficient, fusion-competent virus envelope protein. This can result in production of a virus particle from the lentiviral vector or vector system that includes a split intein that can function as a molecular Velcro linker to link the cell-binding protein to the pseudotyped lentivirus particle. This approach can be advantageous for use where surface-incompatibilities can restrict the use of, e.g., cell targeting peptides.

In some embodiments, a covalent-bond-forming protein-peptide pair can be incorporated into one or more of the lentiviral vectors described herein to conjugate a cell targeting peptide to the virus particle (see e.g., Kasaraneni et al. 2018. Sci. Reports (8) No. 10990). In some embodiments, a lentiviral vector can include an N-terminal PDZ domain of InaD protein (PDZ1) and its pentapeptide ligand (TEFCA) from NorpA, which can conjugate the cell targeting peptide to the virus particle via a covalent bond (e.g., a disulfide bond). In some embodiments, the PDZ1 protein can be fused to an envelope protein, which can optionally be binding deficient and/or fusion competent virus envelope protein and included in a lentiviral vector. In some embodiments, the TEFCA can be fused to a cell targeting peptide and the TEFCA-CPT fusion construct can be incorporated into the same or a different lentiviral vector as the PDZ1-envenlope protein construct. During virus production, specific interaction between the PDZ1 and TEFCA facilitates producing virus particles covalently functionalized with the cell targeting peptide and thus capable of targeting a specific cell-type based upon a specific interaction between the cell targeting peptide and cells expressing its binding partner. This approach can be advantageous for use where surface-incompatibilities can restrict the use of, e.g., cell targeting peptides.

Various exemplary lentiviral vectors, such as those used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, ocular diseases, delivery to the brain, are described in e.g., US Patent Publication No. 20120295960, 20060281180, 20090007284, US20110117189; US20090017543; US20070054961, US20100317109, US20110293571; US20110293571, US20040013648, US20070025970, US20090111106, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,259,015, 7,303,910 and 7,351,585. Any of these systems can be used or adapted to deliver a genetic modifying system polynucleotide or other exogenous polynucleotide of the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, a lentiviral vector system can include one or more transfer plasmids. Transfer plasmids can be generated from various other vector backbones and can include one or more features that can work with other retroviral and/or lentiviral vectors in the system that can, for example, improve safety of the vector and/or vector system, increase virial titers, and/or increase or otherwise enhance expression of the desired insert to be expressed and/or packaged into the viral particle. Suitable features that can be included in a transfer plasmid can include, but are not limited to, 5′LTR, 3′LTR, SIN/LTR, origin of replication (Ori), selectable marker genes (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes), Psi (T), RRE (rev response element), cPPT (central polypurine tract), promoters, WPRE (woodchuck hepatitis post-transcriptional regulatory element), SV40 polyadenylation signal, pUC origin, SV40 origin, F1 origin, and combinations thereof.

In another embodiment, the viral vector is a Cocal vesiculovirus envelope pseudotyped retroviral or lentiviral vector particles are contemplated (see, e.g., US Patent Publication No. 20120164118). Cocal virus is in the Vesiculovirus genus and is a causative agent of vesicular stomatitis in mammals, and as such vectors based on this virus can be used to deliver cells to a wide variety of animals, including insects, cattle, and horses (see e.g., Jonkers et al., Am. J. Vet. Res. 25:236-242 (1964) and Travassos da Rosa et al., Am. J. Tropical Med. & Hygiene 33:999-1006 (1984)). In some embodiments, Cocal vesiculovirus envelope pseudotyped retroviral vector particles may include for example, lentiviral, alpharetroviral, betaretroviral, gammaretroviral, deltaretroviral, and epsilonretroviral vector particles that may comprise retroviral Gag, Pol, and/or one or more accessory protein(s) and a Cocal vesiculovirus envelope protein. In certain embodiments of these embodiments, the Gag, Pol, and accessory proteins are lentiviral and/or gammaretroviral. In some embodiments, a retroviral vector can contain encoding polypeptides for one or more Cocal vesiculovirus envelope proteins such that the resulting viral or pseudoviral particles are Cocal vesiculovirus envelope pseudotyped.

Adenoviral Vectors, Helper-Dependent Adenoviral Vectors, and Hybrid Adenoviral Vectors

In some embodiments, the vector can be an adenoviral vector. In some embodiments, the adenoviral vector can include elements such that the virus particle produced using the vector or system thereof can be any suitable serotype, such as serotype 2, 5, 8, 9, and others. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide to be delivered via the adenoviral particle can be up to about 8 kb. Thus, in some embodiments, an adenoviral vector can include a DNA polynucleotide to be delivered that can range in size from about 0.001 kb to about 8 kb. Adenoviral vectors have been used successfully in several contexts (see e.g., Teramato et al. 2000. Lancet. 355:1911-1912; Lai et al. 2002. DNA Cell. Biol. 21:895-913; Flotte et al., 1996. Hum. Gene. Ther. 7:1145-1159; and Kay et al. 2000. Nat. Genet. 24:257-261.

In some embodiments the vector can be a helper-dependent adenoviral vector or system thereof. These are also referred to in the art as “gutless” or “gutted” vectors and are a modified generation of adenoviral vectors (see e.g., Thrasher et al. 2006. Nature. 443:E5-7). In certain embodiments of the helper-dependent adenoviral vector system one vector (the helper) can contain all the viral genes required for replication but contains a conditional gene defect in the packaging domain. The second vector of the system can contain only the ends of the viral genome, one or more exogenous polynucleotides, and the native packaging recognition signal, which can allow selective packaged release from the cells (see e.g., Cideciyan et al. 2009. N Engl J Med. 361:725-727). Helper-dependent adenoviral vector systems have been successful for gene delivery in several contexts (see e.g., Simonelli et al. 2010. J Am Soc Gene Ther. 18:643-650; Cideciyan et al. 2009. N Engl J Med. 361:725-727; Crane et al. 2012. Gene Ther. 19(4):443-452; Alba et al. 2005. Gene Ther. 12:18-S27; Croyle et al. 2005. Gene Ther. 12:579-587; Amalfitano et al. 1998. J. Virol. 72:926-933; and Morral et al. 1999. PNAS. 96:12816-12821). The techniques and vectors described in these publications can be adapted for inclusion and delivery of the CRISPR-Cas system polynucleotides described herein. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide to be delivered via the viral particle produced from a helper-dependent adenoviral vector or system thereof can be up to about 37 kb. Thus, in some embodiments, an adenoviral vector can include a DNA polynucleotide to be delivered that can range in size from about 0.001 kb to about 37 kb (see e.g. Rosewell et al. 2011. J. Genet. Syndr. Gene Ther. Suppl. 5:001).

In some embodiments, the vector is a hybrid-adenoviral vector or system thereof. Hybrid adenoviral vectors are composed of the high transduction efficiency of a gene-deleted adenoviral vector and the long-term genome-integrating potential of adeno-associated, retroviruses, lentivirus, and transposon based-gene transfer. In some embodiments, such hybrid vector systems can result in stable transduction and limited integration site. See e.g., Balague et al. 2000. Blood. 95:820-828; Morral et al. 1998. Hum. Gene Ther. 9:2709-2716; Kubo and Mitani. 2003. J. Virol. 77(5): 2964-2971; Zhang et al. 2013. PloS One. 8(10) e76771; and Cooney et al. 2015. Mol. Ther. 23(4):667-674), whose techniques and vectors described therein can be modified and adapted for use to deliver a polynucleotide or system of the present invention. In some embodiments, a hybrid-adenoviral vector can include one or more features of a retrovirus and/or an adeno-associated virus. In some embodiments the hybrid-adenoviral vector can include one or more features of a spuma retrovirus or foamy virus (FV). See e.g., Ehrhardt et al. 2007. Mol. Ther. 15:146-156 and Liu et al. 2007. Mol. Ther. 15:1834-1841, whose techniques and vectors described therein can be modified and adapted for use in the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention. Advantages of using one or more features from the FVs in the hybrid-adenoviral vector or system thereof can include the ability of the viral particles produced therefrom to infect a broad range of cells, a large packaging capacity as compared to other retroviruses, and the ability to persist in quiescent (non-dividing) cells. See also e.g., Ehrhardt et al. 2007. Mol. Ther. 156:146-156 and Shuji et al. 2011. Mol. Ther. 19:76-82, whose techniques and vectors described therein can be modified and adapted for use in the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention.

Adeno Associated Viral (AAV) Vectors

In an embodiment, the vector can be an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector. See, e.g., West et al., Virology 160:38-47 (1987); U.S. Pat. No. 4,797,368; WO 93/24641; Kotin, Human Gene Therapy 5:793-801 (1994); and Muzyczka, J. Clin. Invest. 94:1351 (1994). Although similar to adenoviral vectors in some of their features, AAVs have some deficiency in their replication and/or pathogenicity and thus can be safer that adenoviral vectors. In some embodiments the AAV can integrate into a specific site on chromosome 19 of a human cell with no observable side effects. In some embodiments, the capacity of the AAV vector, system thereof, and/or AAV particles can be up to about 4.7 kb. In some embodiments, utilizing homologs of the Cas effector protein that are shorter can be utilized, such for example those in Table 30.

TABLE 30 Exemplary shorter Cas effector homologs. Species Cas9 Size (nt) Corynebacter diphtheriae 3252 Eubacterium ventriosum 3321 Streptococcus pasteurianus 3390 Lactobacillus farciminis 3378 Sphaerochaeta globus 3537 Azospirillum B510 3504 Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus 3150 Neisseria cinerea 3246 Roseburia intestinalis 3420 Parvibaculum lavamentivorans 3111 Staphylococcus aureus 3159 Nitratifractor salsuginis DSM 16511 3396 Campylobacter lari CF89-12 3009 Campylobacter jejuni 2952 Streptococcus thermophilus LMD-9 3396

The AAV vector or system thereof can include one or more regulatory molecules. In some embodiments the regulatory molecules can be promoters, enhancers, repressors and the like, which are described in greater detail elsewhere herein. In some embodiments, the AAV vector or system thereof can include one or more polynucleotides that can encode one or more regulatory proteins. In some embodiments, the one or more regulatory proteins can be selected from Rep78, Rep68, Rep52, Rep40, variants thereof, and combinations thereof.

The AAV vector or system thereof can include one or more polynucleotides that can encode one or more capsid proteins. The capsid proteins can be selected from VP1, VP2, VP3, and combinations thereof. The capsid proteins can be capable of assembling into a protein shell of the AAV virus particle. In some embodiments, the AAV capsid can contain 60 capsid proteins. In some embodiments, the ratio of VP1:VP2:VP3 in a capsid can be about 1:1:10.

In some embodiments, the AAV vector or system thereof can include one or more adenovirus helper factors or polynucleotides that can encode one or more adenovirus helper factors. Such adenovirus helper factors can include, but are not limited, E1A, E1B, E2A, E4ORF6, and VA RNAs. In some embodiments, a producing host cell line expresses one or more of the adenovirus helper factors.

The AAV vector or system thereof can be configured to produce AAV particles having a specific serotype.

AAV particles, packaging polynucleotides encoding compositions of the present disclosure may comprise or be derived from any natural or recombinant AAV serotype. According to the present disclosure, the AAV particles may utilize or be based on a serotype selected from any of the following serotypes, and variants thereof including but not limited to AAV1, AAV10, AAV106.1/hu.37, AAV11, AAV114.3/hu.40, AAV12, AAV127.2/hu.41, AAV127.5/hu.42, AAV128.1/hu.43, AAV128.3/hu.44, AAV130.4/hu.48, AAV145.1/hu.53, AAV145.5/hu.54, AAV145.6/hu.55, AAV16.12/hu. 11, AAV16.3, AAV16.8/hu. 10, AAV161.10/hu.60, AAV161.6/hu.61, AAV1-7/rh.48, AAV1-8/rh.49, AAV2, AAV2.5T, AAV2-15/rh.62, AAV223.1, AAV223.2, AAV223.4, AAV223.5, AAV223.6, AAV223.7, AAV2-3/rh.61, AAV24.1, AAV2-4/rh.50, AAV2-5/rh.51, AAV27.3, AAV29.3/bb.1, AAV29.5/bb.2, AAV2G9, AAV-2-pre-miRNA-101, AAV3, AAV3.1/hu.6, AAV3.1/hu.9, AAV3-11/rh.53, AAV3-3, AAV33.12/hu.17, AAV33 .4/hu. 15, AAV33.8/hu.16, AAV3-9/rh.52, AAV3a, AAV3b, AAV4, AAV4-19/rh.55, AAV42.12, AAV42-10, AAV42-11, AAV42-12, AAV42-13, AAV42-15, AAV42-1b, AAV42-2, AAV42-3a, AAV42-3b, AAV42-4, AAV42-5a, AAV42-5b, AAV42-6b, AAV42-8, AAV42-aa, AAV43-1, AAV43-12, AAV43-20, AAV43-21, AAV43-23, AAV43-25, AAV43-5, AAV4-4, AAV44.1, AAV44.2, AAV44.5, AAV46.2/hu.28, AAV46.6/hu.29, AAV4-8/r11.64, AAV4-8/rh.64, AAV4-9/rh.54, AAVS, AAV52.1/hu.20, AAV52/hu.19, AAVS-22/rh.58, AAV5-3/rh.57, AAV54.1/hu.21, AAV54.2/hu.22, AAV54.4R/hu.27, AAV54.5/hu.23, AAV54.7/hu.24, AAV58.2/hu.25, AAV6, AAV6.1, AAV6.1.2, AAV6.2, AAV7, AAV7.2, AAV7.3/hu.7, AAV8, AAV-8b, AAV-8h, AAV9, AAV9.11, AAV9.13, AAV9.16, AAV9.24, AAV9.45, AAV9.47, AAV9.61, AAV9.68, AAV9.84, AAV9.9, AAVA3.3, AAVA3.4, AAVA3.5, AAVA3.7, AAV-b, AAVC1, AAVC2, AAVCS, AAVCh.5, AAVCh.5R1, AAVcy.2, AAVcy.3, AAVcy.4, AAVcy.5, AAVCy.5R1, AAVCy.5R2, AAVCy.5R3, AAVCy.5R4, AAVcy.6, AAV-DJ, AAV-DJ8, AAVF3, AAVFS, AAV-h, AAVH-1/hu.1, AAVH2, AAVH-5/hu.3, AAVH6, AAVhE1.1, AAVhER1.14, AAVhEr1.16, AAVhEr1.18, AAVhER1.23, AAVhEr1.35, AAVhEr1.36, AAVhEr1.5, AAVhEr1.7, AAVhEr1.8, AAVhEr2.16, AAVhEr2.29, AAVhEr2.30, AAVhEr2.31, AAVhEr2.36, AAVhEr2.4, AAVhEr3.1, AAVhu.1, AAVhu.10, AAVhu.11, AAVhu.11, AAVhu.12, AAVhu.13, AAVhu.14/9, AAVhu.15, AAVhu.16, AAVhu.17, AAVhu.18, AAVhu.19, AAVhu.2, AAVhu.20, AAVhu.21, AAVhu.22, AAVhu.23.2, AAVhu.24, AAVhu.25, AAVhu.27, AAVhu.28, AAVhu.29, AAVhu.29R, AAVhu.3, AAVhu.31, AAVhu.32, AAVhu.34, AAVhu.35, AAVhu.37, AAVhu.39, AAVhu.4, AAVhu.40, AAVhu.41, AAVhu.42, AAVhu.43, AAVhu.44, AAVhu.44R1, AAVhu.44R2, AAVhu.44R3, AAVhu.45, AAVhu.46, AAVhu.47, AAVhu.48, AAVhu.48R1, AAVhu.48R2, AAVhu.48R3, AAVhu.49, AAVhu.5, AAVhu.51, AAVhu.52, AAVhu.53, AAVhu.54, AAVhu.55, AAVhu.56, AAVhu.57, AAVhu.58, AAVhu.6, AAVhu.60, AAVhu.61, AAVhu.63, AAVhu.64, AAVhu.66, AAVhu.67, AAVhu.7, AAVhu.8, AAVhu.9, AAVhu.t 19, AAVLG-10/rh.40, AAVLG-4/rh.38, AAVLG-9/hu.39, AAVLG-9/hu.39, AAV-LK01, AAV-LK02, AAVLK03, AAV-LK03, AAV-LK04, AAV-LK05, AAV-LK06, AAV-LK07, AAV-LK08, AAV-LK09, AAV-LK10, AAV-LK11, AAV-LK12, AAV-LK13, AAV-LK14, AAV-LK 15, AAV-LK 17, AAV-LK 18, AAV-LK 19, AAVN721-8/rh.43, AAV-PAEC, AAV-PAEC11, AAV-PAEC12, AAV-PAEC2, AAV-PAEC4, AAV-PAEC6, AAV-PAEC7, AAV-PAEC8, AAVpi.1, AAVpi.2, AAVpi.3, AAVrh.10, AAVrh.12, AAVrh.13, AAVrh.13R, AAVrh.14, AAVrh.17, AAVrh.18, AAVrh.19, AAVrh.2, AAVrh.20, AAVrh.21, AAVrh.22, AAVrh.23, AAVrh.24, AAVrh.25, AAVrh.2R, AAVrh.31, AAVrh.32, AAVrh.33, AAVrh.34, AAVrh.35, AAVrh.36, AAVrh.37, AAVrh.37R2, AAVrh.38, AAVrh.39, AAVrh.40, AAVrh.43, AAVrh.44, AAVrh.45, AAVrh.46, AAVrh.47, AAVrh.48, AAVrh.48, AAVrh.48.1, AAVrh.48.1.2, AAVrh.48.2, AAVrh.49, AAVrh.50, AAVrh.51, AAVrh.52, AAVrh.53, AAVrh.54, AAVrh.55, AAVrh.56, AAVrh.57, AAVrh.58, AAVrh.59, AAVrh.60, AAVrh.61, AAVrh.62, AAVrh.64, AAVrh.64R1, AAVrh.64R2, AAVrh.65, AAVrh.67, AAVrh.68, AAVrh.69, AAVrh.70, AAVrh.72, AAVrh.73, AAVrh.74, AAVrh.8, AAVrh.8R, AAVrh8R, AAVrh8R A586R mutant, AAVrh8R R533A mutant, BAAV, BNP61 AAV, BNP62 AAV, BNP63 AAV, bovine AAV, caprine AAV, Japanese AAV 10, true type AAV (ttAAV), UPENN AAV 10, AAV-LK16, AAAV, AAV Shuffle 100-1, AAV Shuffle 100-2, AAV Shuffle 100-3, AAV Shuffle 100-7, AAV Shuffle 10-2, AAV Shuffle 10-6, AAV Shuffle 10-8, AAV SM 100-10, AAV SM 100-3, AAV SM 10-1, AAV SM 10-2, and/or AAV SM 10-8.

In some embodiments s, the AAV serotype may be, or have, a mutation in the AAV9 sequence as described by N Pulicherla et al. (Molecular Therapy 19(6):1070-1078 (2011)), such as but not limited to, AAV9.9, AAV9.11, AAV9.13, AAV9.16, AAV9.24, AAV9.45, AAV9.47, AAV9.61, AAV9.68, AAV9.84.

In some embodiments, the AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303, such as, but not limited to, AAV3B (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 10 of U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303), AAV6 (SEQ ID NO: 2, 7 and 11 of U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303), AAV2 (SEQ ID NO: 3 and 8 of U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303), AAV3A (SEQ ID NO: 4 and 9, of U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303), or derivatives thereof.

In some embodiments, the serotype may be AAVDJ or a variant thereof, such as AAVDJ8 (or AAV-DJ8), as described by Grimm et al. (Journal of Virology 82(12): 5887-5911 (2008). The amino acid sequence of AAVDJ8 may comprise two or more mutations in order to remove the heparin binding domain (HBD). As a non-limiting example, the AAV-DJ sequence described as SEQ ID NO: 1 in U.S. Pat. No. 7,588,772 may comprise two mutations: (1) R587Q where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 587 is changed to glutamine (Q; Gln) and (2) R590T where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 590 is changed to threonine (T; Thr). As another non-limiting example, may comprise three mutations: (1) K406R where lysine (K; Lys) at amino acid 406 is changed to arginine (R; Arg), (2) R587Q where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 587 is changed to glutamine (Q; Gln) and (3) R590T where arginine (R; Arg) at amino acid 590 is changed to threonine (T; Thr).

In some embodiments, the AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in International Publication No. WO2015121501, such as, but not limited to, true type AAV (ttAAV) (SEQ ID NO: 2 of WO2015121501), “UPenn AAV10” (SEQ ID NO: 8 of WO2015/121501), “Japanese AAV10” (SEQ ID NO: 9 of WO2015/121501), or variants thereof.

According to the present disclosure, AAV capsid serotype selection or use may be from a variety of species. In one example, the AAV may be an avian AAV (AAAV). The AAAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,238,800, such as, but not limited to, AAAV (SEQ ID NO: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 of U.S. Pat. No. 9,238,800), or variants thereof.

In one example, the AAV may be a bovine AAV (BAAV). The BAAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,193,769, such as, but not limited to, BAAV (SEQ ID NO: 1 and 6 of U.S. Pat. No. 9,193,769), or variants thereof. The BAAV serotype may be or have a sequence as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,427,396, such as, but not limited to, BAAV (SEQ ID NO: 5 and 6 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,427,396), or variants thereof.

In one example, the AAV may be a caprine AAV. The caprine AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,427,396, such as, but not limited to, caprine AAV (SEQ ID NO: 3 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,427,396), or variants thereof.

In other examples the AAV may be engineered as a hybrid AAV from two or more parental serotypes. In one example, the AAV may be AAV2G9 which comprises sequences from AAV2 and AAV9. The AAV2G9 AAV serotype may be, or have, a sequence as described in United States Patent Publication No. US2016/0017005.

In one example, the AAV may be a serotype generated by the AAV9 capsid library with mutations in amino acids 390-627 (VP1 numbering) as described by Pulicherla et al. (Molecular Therapy 19(6):1070-1078 (2011). The serotype and corresponding nucleotide and amino acid substitutions may be, but is not limited to, AAV9.1 (G1594C; D532H), AAV6.2 (T1418A and T1436X; V473D and 1479K), AAV9.3 (T1238A; F413Y), AAV9.4 (T1250C and A1617T; F417S), AAV9.5 (A1235G, A1314T, A1642G, C1760T; Q412R, T548A, A587V), AAV9.6 (T1231A; F4111), AAV9.9 (G1203A, G1785T; W595C), AAV9.10 (A1500G, T1676C; M559T), AAV9.11 (A1425T, A1702C, A1769T; T568P, Q590 L), AAV9.13 (A1369C, A1720T; N457H, T574S), AAV9.14 (T1340A, T1362C, T1560C, G1713A; L447H), AAV9.16 (A1775T; Q592 L), AAV9.24 (T1507C, T1521G; W503R), AAV9.26 (A1337G, A1769C; Y446C, Q590P), AAV9.33 (A1667C; D556A), AAV9.34 (A1534G, C1794T; N512D), AAV9.35 (A1289T, T1450A, C1494T, A1515T, C1794A, G1816A; Q430 L, Y484N, N98K, V6061), AAV9.40 (A1694T, E565V), AAV9.41 (A1348T, T1362C; T450S), AAV9.44 (A1684C, A1701T, A1737G; N562H, K567N), AAV9.45 (A1492T, C1804T; N498Y, L602F), AAV9.46 (G1441C, T1525C, T1549G; G481R, W509R, L517V), 9.47 (G1241A, G1358A, A1669G, C1745T; S414N, G453D, K557E, T5821), AAV9.48 (C1445T, A1736T; P482 L, Q579 L), AAV9.50 (A1638T, C1683T, T1805A; Q546H, L602H), AAV9.53 (G1301A, A1405C, C1664T, G1811T; R134Q, 5469R, A555V, G604V), AAV9.54 (C1531A, T1609A; L5111, L537M), AAV9.55 (T1605A; F535 L), AAV9.58 (C1475T, C1579A; T4921, H527N), AAV.59 (T1336C; Y446H), AAV9.61 (A1493T; N4981), AAV9.64 (C1531A, A1617T; L5111), AAV9.65 (C1335T, T1530C, C1568A; A523D), AAV9.68 (C1510A; P504T), AAV9.80 (G1441A; G481R), AAV9.83 (C1402A, A1500T; P468T, E500D), AAV9.87 (T1464C, T1468C; S490P), AAV9.90 (A1196T; Y399F), AAV9.91 (T1316G, A1583T, C1782G, T1806C; L439R, K5281), AAV9.93 (A1273G, A1421G, A1638C, C1712T, G1732A, A1744T, A1832T; S425G, Q474R, Q546H, P571 L, G578R, T582S, D611V), AAV9.94 (A1675T; M559 L) and AAV9.95 (T1605A; F535L).

In one example, the AAV may be a serotype including at least one AAV capsid CD8+ T-cell epitope. As a non-limiting example, the serotype may be AAV1, AAV2 or AAV8.

In one example, the AAV may be a variant, such as PHP.A or PHP.B as described in Deverman. 2016. Nature Biotechnology. 34(2): 204-209.

AAV vector serotypes can be matched to target cell types. For example, the following exemplary cell types can be transduced by the indicated AAV serotypes among others.

In some embodiments, the serotype can be AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-8, AAV-9 or any combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the AAV can be AAV1, AAV-2, AAV-5 or any combination thereof. One can select the AAV of the AAV with regard to the cells to be targeted; e.g., one can select AAV serotypes 1, 2, 5 or a hybrid capsid AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-5 or any combination thereof for targeting brain and/or neuronal cells; and one can select AAV-4 for targeting cardiac tissue; and one can select AAV8 for delivery to the liver. Thus, in some embodiments, an AAV vector or system thereof capable of producing AAV particles capable of targeting the brain and/or neuronal cells can be configured to generate AAV particles having serotypes 1, 2, 5 or a hybrid capsid AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-5 or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an AAV vector or system thereof capable of producing AAV particles capable of targeting cardiac tissue can be configured to generate an AAV particle having an AAV-4 serotype. In some embodiments, an AAV vector or system thereof capable of producing AAV particles capable of targeting the liver can be configured to generate an AAV having an AAV-8 serotype. In some embodiments, the AAV vector is a hybrid AAV vector or system thereof. Hybrid AAVs are AAVs that include genomes with elements from one serotype that are packaged into a capsid derived from at least one different serotype. For example, if it is the rAAV2/5 that is to be produced, and if the production method is based on the helper-free, transient transfection method discussed above, the 1st plasmid and the 3rd plasmid (the adeno helper plasmid) will be the same as discussed for rAAV2 production. However, the second plasmid, the pRepCap will be different. In this plasmid, called pRep2/Cap5, the Rep gene is still derived from AAV2, while the Cap gene is derived from AAVS. The production scheme is the same as the above-mentioned approach for AAV2 production. The resulting rAAV is called rAAV2/5, in which the genome is based on recombinant AAV2, while the capsid is based on AAV5. It is assumed the cell or tissue-tropism displayed by this AAV2/5 hybrid virus should be the same as that of AAV5.

A tabulation of certain AAV serotypes as to these cells can be found in Grimm, D. et al, J. Virol. 82: 5887-5911 (2008) and in Table 31.

TABLE 31 Tissue/Cell Types and Exemplary Serotypes liver AAV3, AAV5, AAV8, AAV9 Skeletal muscle AAV1, AAV7, AAV6, AAV8, AAV9 Central nervous system AAV5, AAV1, AAV4, AAV9 RPE AAV5, AAV4 Lung AAV9 Heart AAV8 Pancreas AAV8 Kidney AAV2, AAV8 Hematopoietic Stem Cells AAV6

In some embodiments, the AAV vector or system thereof is configured as a “gutless” vector, similar to that described in connection with a retroviral vector. In some embodiments, the “gutless” AAV vector or system thereof can have the cis-acting viral DNA elements involved in genome amplification and packaging in linkage with the heterologous sequences of interest (e.g., the genetic modifying system polynucleotide(s)).

In some embodiments, the AAV vectors are produced in in insect cells, e.g., Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 insect cells, grown in serum-free suspension culture. Serum-free insect cells can be purchased from commercial vendors, e.g., Sigma Aldrich (EX-CELL 405).

In some embodiments, an AAV vector or vector system can contain or consists essentially of one or more polynucleotides encoding one or more components of a genetic modifying system or other exogenous polynucleotide to be delivered to a cell. Specific cassette configuration for delivery of a genetic modifying system and/or other exogenous polynucleotide(s) will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the description herein.

In some embodiments, one or more components of a genetic modifying system or other polypeptides and/or polynucleotides are associated with Adeno Associated Virus (AAV), e.g., an AAV comprising a polypeptide of the genetic modification system or exogenous polypeptide as a fusion, with or without a linker, to or with an AAV capsid protein such as VP1, VP2, and/or VP3. More in particular, modifying the knowledge in the art, e.g., Rybniker et al., “Incorporation of Antigens into Viral Capsids Augments Immunogenicity of Adeno-Associated Virus Vector-Based Vaccines,” J Virol. December 2012; 86(24): 13800-13804, Lux K, et al. 2005. Green fluorescent protein-tagged adeno-associated virus particles allow the study of cytosolic and nuclear trafficking. J. Virol. 79:11776-11787, Munch RC, et al. 2012. “Displaying high-affinity ligands on adeno-associated viral vectors enables tumor cell-specific and safe gene transfer.” Mol. Ther. [Epub ahead of print.] doi:10.1038/mt.2012.186 and Warrington K H, Jr, et al. 2004. Adeno-associated virus type 2 VP2 capsid protein is nonessential and can tolerate large peptide insertions at its N terminus. J. Virol. 78:6595-6609, each incorporated herein by reference, one can obtain a modified AAV capsid as described herein. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that the modifications described herein if inserted into the AAV cap gene may result in modifications in the VP1, VP2 and/or VP3 capsid subunits. Alternatively, the capsid subunits can be expressed independently to achieve modification in only one or two of the capsid subunits (VP1, VP2, VP3, VP1+VP2, VP1+VP3, or VP2+VP3). One can modify the cap gene to have expressed at a desired location a non-capsid protein advantageously a large payload protein, such as a Cas protein or other exogenous polypeptide. Likewise, these can be fusions, with the protein, e.g., large payload protein such as a Cas protein fused in a manner analogous to prior art fusions. See, e.g., US Patent Publication 20090215879; Nance et al., “Perspective on Adeno-Associated Virus Capsid Modification for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Gene Therapy,” Hum Gene Ther. 26(12):786-800 (2015) and documents cited therein, incorporated herein by reference. The skilled person, from this disclosure and the knowledge in the art can make and use modified AAV or AAV capsid as with other aspects of the present disclosure, and through this description herein one knows now that large payload proteins can be fused to the AAV capsid. Accordingly, the approaches described herein are also applicable to a virus in the genus Dependoparvovirus or in the family Parvoviridae, for instance, AAV, or a virus of Amdoparvovirus, e.g., Carnivore amdoparvovirus 1, a virus of Aveparvovirus, e.g., Galliform aveparvovirus 1, a virus of Bocaparvovirus, e.g., Ungulate bocaparvovirus 1, a virus of Copiparvovirus, e.g., Ungulate copiparvovirus 1, a virus of Dependoparvovirus, e.g., Adeno-associated dependoparvovirus A, a virus of Erythroparvovirus, e.g., Primate erythroparvovirus 1, a virus of Protoparvovirus, e.g., Rodent protoparvovirus 1, a virus of Tetraparvovirus, e.g., Primate tetraparvovirus 1.

In some embodiments, a genetic modifying system polypeptide or other exogenous polypeptide is external to the capsid or virus particle, such as an AAV capsid. Although this approach is discussed in the context of AAVs, such an approach is applicable to other viral systems or viral like particle systems where capsids are formed. In these embodiments, the cargo polypeptide is not inside the capsid (enveloped or encompassed with the capsid), but is externally exposed so that it can contact the target genomic or other target DNA or RNA). In some embodiments, the cargo polypeptide is associated with the AAV VP2 domain by way of a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the association may be considered to be a modification of the VP2 domain. In some embodiments, the AAV VP2 domain may be associated (or tethered) to the cargo polypeptide via a connector protein, for example using a system such as the streptavidin-biotin system. Also provided herein are polynucleotides encoding a cargo polypeptide (e.g., a genetic modifying polypeptide or other exogenous cargo polypeptide) and associated AAV VP2 domain. In some preferred embodiments, the cargo polypeptide is fused or tethered (e.g., via linker) to the VP2 domain so that, a non-naturally occurring modified AAV having a VP2-cargo polypeptide fusion or otherwise modified capsid protein is formed. In some embodiments, where the cargo is tethered via a linker, the cargo can be distanced from the remainder of the AAV (or other viral or viral like particle). The fusion or tether can be at the N-terminus, C-terminus, or both of the capsid polypeptide. In some embodiments, an NLS and/or a linker (such as a GlySer linker) or other tether is positioned between the C-terminal end of the cargo and the N-terminal end of the capsid domain. In some embodiments, an NLS and/or a linker (such as a GlySer linker) or other tether is positioned between the N-terminal end of the cargo and the C-terminal end of the capsid domain. In some embodiments, the capsid polypeptide that is modified with a cargo polypeptide is truncated or contains a loss of one or more internal amino acids with the N- and C-terminal amino acids (e.g., the first (or last) 2-10 amino acids of the capsid domain intact. In these embodiments, the cargo polypeptide can be inserted between the intact N- and/or C-terminal amino acids via a fusion (e.g., an in-frame fusion) or linker or other tether (such as a streptavidin/biotin system or other adaptor molecule such as MS2). In some embodiments where a linker is used, the linker can be a branched linker, which can allow for more distance between the cargo polypeptide and capsid. A cargo polypeptide can be incorporated into other capsid domains of the AAV (e.g., VP1 and/or VP3) in a similar fashion as described with respect to VP2. Likewise, similar approaches (e.g., fusion or tethered) can be used to modified non-AAV capsids of other viral and viral-like delivery systems described herein.

Herpes Simplex Viral Vectors

In some embodiments, the vector is a Herpes Simplex Viral (HSV)-based vector or system thereof. HSV systems can include the disabled infections single copy (DISC) viruses, which are composed of a glycoprotein H defective mutant HSV genome. When the defective HSV is propagated in complementing cells, virus particles can be generated that are capable of infecting subsequent cells permanently replicating their own genome but are not capable of producing more infectious particles. See e.g., 2009. Trobridge. Exp. Opin. Biol. Ther. 9:1427-1436, whose techniques and vectors described therein can be modified and adapted for use in the CRISPR-Cas system of the present invention. In some embodiments where an HSV vector or system thereof is utilized, the host cell can be a complementing cell. In some embodiments, HSV vector or system thereof can be capable of producing virus particles capable of delivering a polynucleotide cargo of up to 150 kb. Thus, in some embodiments the cargo polynucleotide(s) included in the HSV-based viral vector or system thereof can sum from about 0.001 to about 150 kb. HSV-based vectors and systems thereof have been successfully used in several contexts including various models of neurologic disorders. See e.g., Cockrell et al. 2007. Mol. Biotechnol. 36:184-204; Kafri T. 2004. Mol. Biol. 246:367-390; Balaggan and Ali. 2012. Gene Ther. 19:145-153; Wong et al. 2006. Hum. Gen. Ther. 2002. 17:1-9; Azzouz et al. J. Neruosci. 22 L10302-10312; and Betchen and Kaplitt. 2003. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 16:487-493, whose techniques and vectors described therein can be modified and adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Poxvirus Vectors

In some embodiments, the vector can be a poxvirus vector or system thereof. In some embodiments, the poxvirus vector can result in cytoplasmic expression of one or more cargo polynucleotides of the present disclosure. In some embodiments the capacity of a poxvirus vector or system thereof can be about 25 kb or more. In some embodiments, a poxvirus vector or system thereof can include one or more cargo polynucleotides described herein.

Virus Particle Production from Viral Vectors

Retroviral Production

In some embodiments, one or more viral vectors and/or system thereof can be delivered to a suitable cell line for production of virus particles containing the polynucleotide or other payload to be delivered to a host cell. Suitable host cells for virus production from viral vectors and systems thereof described herein are known in the art and are commercially available. For example, suitable host cells include HEK 293 cells and its variants (HEK 293T and HEK 293TN cells). In some embodiments, the suitable host cell for virus production from viral vectors and systems thereof described herein can stably express one or more genes involved in packaging (e.g., pol, gag, and/or VSV-G) and/or other supporting genes.

In some embodiments, after delivery of one or more viral vectors to the suitable host cells for or virus production from viral vectors and systems thereof, the cells are incubated for an appropriate length of time to allow for viral gene expression from the vectors, packaging of the polynucleotide to be delivered (e.g., a genetic modifying system polynucleotide or other polynucleotide of the present disclosure), and virus particle assembly, and secretion of mature virus particles into the culture media. Various other methods and techniques are generally known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

Mature virus particles can be collected from the culture media by a suitable method. In some embodiments, this can involve centrifugation to concentrate the virus. The titer of the composition containing the collected virus particles can be obtained using a suitable method. Such methods can include transducing a suitable cell line (e.g., NIH 3T3 cells) and determining transduction efficiency, infectivity in that cell line by a suitable method. Suitable methods include PCR-based methods, flow cytometry, and antibiotic selection-based methods. Various other methods and techniques are generally known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The concentration of virus particle can be adjusted as needed. In some embodiments, the resulting composition containing virus particles can contain 1×10¹ −1×10²⁰ or more particles/mL.

Lentiviruses may be prepared from any lentiviral vector or vector system described herein. In one example embodiment, after cloning a polynucleotide to be delivered into a suitable lentiviral vector (which contains a lentiviral transfer plasmid backbone), HEK293FT at low passage (p=5) can be seeded in a T-75 flask to 50% confluence the day before transfection in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum and without antibiotics. After 20 hours, the media can be changed to OptiMEM (serum-free) media and transfection of the lentiviral vectors can done 4 hours later. Cells can be transfected with 10 μg of lentiviral transfer plasmid (pCasES10) and the appropriate packaging plasmids (e.g., 5 μg of pMD2.G (VSV-g pseudotype), and 7.5ug of psPAX2 (gag/pol/rev/tat)). Transfection can be carried out in 4 mL OptiMEM with a cationic lipid delivery agent (50 uL Lipofectamine 2000 and 100 ul Plus reagent). After 6 hours, the media can be changed to antibiotic-free DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum. These methods can use serum during cell culture, but serum-free methods are preferred.

Following transfection and allowing the producing cells (also referred to as packaging cells) to package and produce virus particles with packaged cargo, the lentiviral particles can be purified. In an exemplary embodiment, virus-containing supernatants can be harvested after 48 hours. Collected virus-containing supernatants can first be cleared of debris and filtered through a 0.45 um low protein binding (PVDF) filter. They can then be spun in an ultracentrifuge for 2 hours at 24,000 rpm. The resulting virus-containing pellets can be resuspended in 50 ul of DMEM overnight at 4 degrees C. They can be then aliquoted and used immediately or immediately frozen at −80 degrees C. for storage.

See also Merten et al., 2016. “Production of lentiviral vectors.” Mol. Ther. 3: 10617 for additional methods and techniques for lentiviral vector and particle production, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

AAV Particle Production

General principles of rAAV production are reviewed in, for example, Carter, 1992, Current Opinions in Biotechnology, 1533-539; and Muzyczka, 1992, Curr. Topics in Microbial. and Immunol., 158:97-129). Various approaches are described in Ratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072 (1984); Hermonat et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 81:6466 (1984); Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251 (1985); McLaughlin et al., J. Virol., 62:1963 (1988); and Lebkowski et al., 1988 Mol. Cell. Biol., 7:349 (1988). Samulski et al. (1989, J. Virol., 63:3822-3828); U.S. Pat. No. 5,173,414; WO 95/13365 and corresponding U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,776; WO 95/13392; WO 96/17947; PCT/U598/18600; WO 97/09441 (PCT/US96/14423); WO 97/08298 (PCT/US96/13872); WO 97/21825 (PCT/US96/20777); WO 97/06243 (PCT/FR96/01064); WO 99/11764; Perrin et al. (1995) Vaccine 13:1244-1250; Paul et al. (1993) Human Gene Therapy 4:609-615; Clark et al. (1996) Gene Therapy 3:1124-1132; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,786,211; 5,871,982; and 6,258,595.

In general, there are two main strategies for producing AAV particles from AAV vectors and systems thereof, such as those described herein, which depend on how the adenovirus helper factors are provided (helper v. helper free). In some embodiments, a method of producing AAV particles from AAV vectors and systems thereof can include adenovirus infection into cell lines that stably harbor AAV replication and capsid encoding polynucleotides along with AAV vector containing the cargo polynucleotide to be packaged and delivered by the resulting AAV particle (e.g., the genetic modifying system polynucleotide(s)). In some embodiments, a method of producing AAV particles from AAV vectors and systems thereof can be a “helper free” method, which includes co-transfection of an appropriate producing cell line with three vectors (e.g., plasmid vectors): (1) an AAV vector that contains a cargo polynucleotide (e.g., the CRISPR-Cas system polynucleotide(s)) between 2 ITRs; (2) a vector that carries the AAV Rep-Cap encoding polynucleotides; and (helper polynucleotides). One of skill in the art will appreciate various methods and variations thereof that are both helper and -helper free and as well as the different advantages of each system. See also Kimur et al., 2019. Sci. Rep. 6:13601; Shin et al., Meth. Mol Biol. 2012. 798:267-284; Negrini et al., 2020. Curr. Prot. Neurosci. 93:e103; Dobrowsky et al., 2021. Curr. Op. Biomed. Eng. 20:100353 for additional methods and techniques for AAV vector and particle production, which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure.

Non-Viral Vectors

In some embodiments, the vector is a non-viral vector or vector system. The term of art “Non-viral vector” and as used herein in this context refers to molecules and/or compositions that are vectors but that are not based on one or more component of a virus or virus genome (excluding any nucleotide to be delivered and/or expressed by the non-viral vector) that can be capable of incorporating cargo polynucleotide(s) and delivering said cargo polynucleotide(s) to a cell and/or expressing the polynucleotide in the cell. It will be appreciated that this does not exclude vectors containing a polynucleotide designed to target a virus-based polynucleotide that is to be delivered. For example, if a gRNA to be delivered is directed against a virus component and it is inserted or otherwise coupled to an otherwise non-viral vector or carrier, this would not make said vector a “viral vector”. Non-viral vectors can include, without limitation, naked polynucleotides and polynucleotide (non-viral) based vector and vector systems.

Naked Polynucleotides

In some embodiments one or more polynucleotides of the present disclosure described elsewhere herein can be included in a naked polynucleotide. The term of art “naked polynucleotide” as used herein refers to polynucleotides that are not associated with another molecule (e.g., proteins, lipids, and/or other molecules) that can often help protect it from environmental factors and/or degradation. As used herein, associated with includes, but is not limited to, linked to, adhered to, adsorbed to, enclosed in, enclosed in or within, mixed with, and the like. Naked polynucleotides that include one or more of the cargo polynucleotides described herein can be delivered directly to a host cell and optionally expressed therein. The naked polynucleotides can have any suitable two- and three-dimensional configurations. By way of non-limiting examples, naked polynucleotides can be single-stranded molecules, double stranded molecules, circular molecules (e.g., plasmids and artificial chromosomes), molecules that contain portions that are single stranded and portions that are double stranded (e.g., ribozymes), and the like. In some embodiments, the naked polynucleotide contains only the cargo polynucleotide(s). In some embodiments, the naked polynucleotide can contain other nucleic acids and/or polynucleotides in addition to the cargo polynucleotide(s). The naked polynucleotides can include one or more elements of a transposon system. Transposons and system thereof are described in greater detail elsewhere herein.

Non-Viral Polynucleotide Vectors

In some embodiments, one or more of the polynucleotides of the present disclosure can be included in a non-viral polynucleotide vector. Suitable non-viral polynucleotide vectors include, but are not limited to, transposon vectors and vector systems, plasmids, bacterial artificial chromosomes, yeast artificial chromosomes, AR(antibiotic resistance)-free plasmids and miniplasmids, circular covalently closed vectors (e.g. minicircles, minivectors, miniknots,), linear covalently closed vectors (“dumbbell shaped”), MIDGE (minimalistic immunologically defined gene expression) vectors, MiLV (micro-linear vector) vectors, Ministrings, mini-intronic plasmids, PSK systems (post-segregationally killing systems), ORT (operator repressor titration) plasmids, and the like. See e.g., Hardee et al. 2017. Genes. 8(2):65.

In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can have a conditional origin of replication. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can be an ORT plasmid. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can have a minimalistic immunologically defined gene expression. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can have one or more post-segregationally killing system genes. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector is AR-free. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector is a minivector. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector includes a nuclear localization signal. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can include one or more CpG motifs. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vectors can include one or more scaffold/matrix attachment regions (S/MARs). See e.g., Mirkovitch et al. 1984. Cell. 39:223-232, Wong et al. 2015. Adv. Genet. 89:113-152, whose techniques and vectors can be adapted for use in the present invention. S/MARs are AT-rich sequences that play a role in the spatial organization of chromosomes through DNA loop base attachment to the nuclear matrix. S/MARs are often found close to regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, and origins of DNA replication. Inclusion of one or S/MARs can facilitate a once-per-cell-cycle replication to maintain the non-viral polynucleotide vector as an episome in daughter cells. In certain embodiments, the S/MAR sequence is located downstream of an actively transcribed polynucleotide (e.g., one or more cargo polynucleotides) included in the non-viral polynucleotide vector. In some embodiments, the S/MAR can be a S/MAR from the beta-interferon gene cluster. See e.g., Verghese et al. 2014. Nucleic Acid Res. 42:e53; Xu et al. 2016. Sci. China Life Sci. 59:1024-1033; Jin et al. 2016. 8:702-711; Koirala et al. 2014. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 801:703-709; and Nehlsen et al. 2006. Gene Ther. Mol. Biol. 10:233-244, whose techniques and vectors can be adapted for use in the present invention.

In some embodiments, the non-viral vector is a transposon vector or system thereof. As used herein, “transposon” (also referred to as transposable element) refers to a polynucleotide sequence that is capable of moving form location in a genome to another. There are several classes of transposons. Transposons include retrotransposons and DNA transposons. Retrotransposons require the transcription of the polynucleotide that is moved (or transposed) in order to transpose the polynucleotide to a new genome or polynucleotide. DNA transposons are those that do not require reverse transcription of the polynucleotide that is moved (or transposed) in order to transpose the polynucleotide to a new genome or polynucleotide. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can be a retrotransposon vector. In some embodiments, the retrotransposon vector includes long terminal repeats. In some embodiments, the retrotransposon vector does not include long terminal repeats. In some embodiments, the non-viral polynucleotide vector can be a DNA transposon vector. DNA transposon vectors can include a polynucleotide sequence encoding a transposase. In some embodiments, the transposon vector is configured as a non-autonomous transposon vector, meaning that the transposition does not occur spontaneously on its own. In some of these embodiments, the transposon vector lacks one or more polynucleotide sequences encoding proteins required for transposition. In some embodiments, the non-autonomous transposon vectors lack one or more Ac elements.

In some embodiments a non-viral polynucleotide transposon vector system can include a first polynucleotide vector that contains the cargo polynucleotide(s) of the present invention flanked on the 5′ and 3′ ends by transposon terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) and a second polynucleotide vector that includes a polynucleotide capable of encoding a transposase coupled to a promoter to drive expression of the transposase. When both are expressed in the same cell the transposase can be expressed from the second vector and can transpose the material between the TIRs on the first vector (e.g., the cargo polynucleotide(s) of the present invention) and integrate it into one or more positions in the host cell's genome. In some embodiments the transposon vector or system thereof can be configured as a gene trap. In some embodiments, the TIRs can be configured to flank a strong splice acceptor site followed by a reporter and/or other gene (e.g., one or more of the cargo polynucleotide(s) of the present invention) and a strong poly A tail. When transposition occurs while using this vector or system thereof, the transposon can insert into an intron of a gene and the inserted reporter or other gene can provoke a mis-splicing process and as a result it in activates the trapped gene.

Any suitable transposon system can be used. Suitable transposon and systems thereof can include without limitation Sleeping Beauty transposon system (Tc1/mariner superfamily) (see e.g., Ivies et al. 1997. Cell. 91(4): 501-510), piggyBac (piggyBac superfamily) (see e.g., Li et al. 2013 110(25): E2279-E2287 and Yusa et al. 2011. PNAS. 108(4): 1531-1536), Tol2 (superfamily hAT), Frog Prince (Tc1/mariner superfamily) (see e.g., Miskey et al. 2003 Nucleic Acid Res. 31(23):6873-6881) and variants thereof.

Non-Vector Delivery Vehicles

The delivery vehicles may comprise non-vector vehicles. In general, methods and vehicles capable of delivering nucleic acids and/or proteins may be used for delivering the systems compositions herein. Examples of non-vector vehicles include lipid nanoparticles, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), DNA nanoclews, metal nanoparticles, streptolysin 0, multifunctional envelope-type nanodevices (MENDs), lipid-coated mesoporous silica particles, and other inorganic nanoparticles.

Lipid Particles

The delivery vehicles can include or be composed of lipid particles, e.g., lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and liposomes. Lipofection is described in e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,049,386, 4,946,787; and 4,897,355) and lipofection reagents are sold commercially (e.g., Transfectam™ and Lipofectin™). Cationic and neutral lipids that are suitable for efficient receptor-recognition lipofection of polynucleotides include those of Felgner, International Patent Publication Nos. WO 91/17424 and WO 91/16024. The preparation of lipid:nucleic acid complexes, including targeted liposomes such as immunolipid complexes, is well known to one of skill in the art (see, e.g., Crystal, Science 270:404-410 (1995); Blaese et al., Cancer Gene Ther. 2:291-297 (1995); Behr et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:382-389 (1994); Remy et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:647-654 (1994); Gao et al., Gene Therapy 2:710-722 (1995); Ahmad et al., Cancer Res. 52:4817-4820 (1992); U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,186,183, 4,217,344, 4,235,871, 4,261,975, 4,485,054, 4,501,728, 4,774,085, 4,837,028, and 4,946,787).

Lipid Nanoparticles (LNPs)

LNPs may encapsulate nucleic acids within cationic lipid particles (e.g., liposomes), and may be delivered to cells with relative ease. In some examples, lipid nanoparticles do not contain any viral components, which helps minimize safety and immunogenicity concerns. Lipid particles may be used for in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo deliveries. Lipid particles may be used for various scales of cell populations.

In some examples. LNPs may be used for delivering DNA molecules (e.g., those comprising coding sequences of a cargo polypeptide) and/or RNA molecules (e.g., mRNA of encoding a cargo polypeptide and/or other RNA cargos such as gRNAs). In certain cases, LNPs may be use for delivering RNP complexes of e.g., Cas/gRNA.

Components in LNPs may comprise cationic lipids 1,2-dilineoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DLinDAP), 1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,N-dimethylaminopropane (DLinDMA), 1,2-dilinoleyloxyketo-N,N-dimethyl-3-aminopropane (DLinK-DMA), 1,2-dilinoleyl-4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)-[1,3]-dioxolane (DLinKC2-DMA), (3-o-[2″-(methoxypolyethyleneglycol 2000) succinoyl]-1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycol (PEG-S-DMG), R-3-[(ro-methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)2000) carbamoyl]-1,2-dimyristyloxlpropyl-3-amine (PEG-C-DOMG, and any combination thereof. Preparation of LNPs and encapsulation may be adapted from Rosin et al, Molecular Therapy, vol. 19, no. 12, pages 1286-2200, December 2011).

In some embodiments, an LNP delivery vehicle can be used to deliver a virus particle containing cargo polypeptides or polynucleotides. In some embodiments, the virus particle(s) can be adsorbed to the lipid particle, such as through electrostatic interactions, and/or can be attached to the liposomes via a linker.

In some embodiments, the LNP contains a nucleic acid, wherein the charge ratio of nucleic acid backbone phosphates to cationic lipid nitrogen atoms is about 1:1.5-7 or about 1:4.

In some embodiments, the LNP also includes a shielding compound, which is removable from the lipid composition under in vivo conditions. In some embodiments, the shielding compound is a biologically inert compound. In some embodiments, the shielding compound does not carry any charge on its surface or on the molecule as such. In some embodiments, the shielding compounds are polyethylenglycoles (PEGs), hydroxyethylglucose (HEG) based polymers, polyhydroxyethyl starch (polyHES) and polypropylene. In some embodiments, the PEG, HEG, polyHES, and a polypropylene weight between about 500 to 10,000 Da or between about 2000 to 5000 Da. In some embodiments, the shielding compound is PEG2000 or PEG5000.

In some embodiments, the LNP can include one or more helper lipids. In some embodiments, the helper lipid can be a phosphor lipid or a steroid. In some embodiments, the helper lipid is between about 20 mol % to 80 mol % of the total lipid content of the composition. In some embodiments, the helper lipid component is between about 35 mol % to 65 mol % of the total lipid content of the LNP. In some embodiments, the LNP includes lipids at 50 mol % and the helper lipid at 50 mol % of the total lipid content of the LNP.

Other non-limiting, exemplary LNP delivery vehicles are described in U.S. Patent Publication Nos. US 20160174546, US 20140301951, US 20150105538, US 20150250725, Wang et al., J. Control Release, 2017 Jan. 31. pii: 50168-3659(17)30038-X. doi: 10.1016/j.jconre1.2017.01.037.; Altinoglu et al., Biomater Sci., 4(12):1773-80, Nov. 15, 2016; Wang et al., PNAS, 113(11):2868-73 March 15, 2016; Wang et al., PloS One, 10(11): e0141860. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141860. eCollection 2015, Nov. 3, 2015; Takeda et al., Neural Regen Res. 10(5):689-90, May 2015; Wang et al., Adv. Healthc Mater., 3(9):1398-403, September 2014; and Wang et al., Agnew Chem Int Ed Engl., 53(11):2893-8, Mar. 10, 2014; James E. Dahlman and Carmen Barnes et al. Nature Nanotechnology (2014) published online 11 May 2014, doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.84; Coelho et al., N Engl J Med 2013; 369:819-29; Aleku et al., Cancer Res., 68(23): 9788-98 (Dec. 1, 2008), Strumberg et al., Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 50(1): 76-8 (January 2012), Schultheis et al., J. Clin. Oncol., 32(36): 4141-48 (Dec. 20, 2014), and Fehring et al., Mol. Ther., 22(4): 811-20 (Apr. 22, 2014); Novobrantseva, Molecular Therapy—Nucleic Acids (2012) 1, e4; doi:10.1038/mtna.2011.3; WO2012135025; US 20140348900; US 20140328759; US 20140308304; WO 2005/105152; WO 2006/069782; WO 2007/121947; US 2015/082080; US 20120251618; U.S. Pat. No. 7,982,027; 7,799,565; 8,058,069; 8,283,333; 7,901,708; 7,745,651; 7,803,397; 8,101,741; 8,188,263; 7,915,399; 8,236,943 and 7,838,658 and European Pat. Nos 1766035; 1519714; 1781593 and 1664316.

Liposomes

In some embodiments, a lipid particle may be liposome. Liposomes are spherical vesicle structures composed of a uni- or multilamellar lipid bilayer surrounding internal aqueous compartments and a relatively impermeable outer lipophilic phospholipid bilayer. In some embodiments, liposomes are biocompatible, nontoxic, can deliver both hydrophilic and lipophilic drug molecules, protect their cargo from degradation by plasma enzymes, and transport their load across biological membranes and the blood brain barrier (BBB).

Liposomes can be made from several different types of lipids, e.g., phospholipids. A liposome may comprise natural phospholipids and lipids such as 1,2-distearoryl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidyl choline (DSPC), sphingomyelin, egg phosphatidylcholines, monosialoganglioside, or any combination thereof.

Several other additives may be added to liposomes in order to modify their structure and properties. For instance, liposomes may further comprise cholesterol, sphingomyelin, and/or 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE), e.g., to increase stability and/or to prevent the leakage of the liposomal inner cargo.

In some embodiments, a liposome delivery vehicle can be used to deliver a virus particle containing cargo polypeptide(s) and/or polynucleotide(s). In some embodiments, the virus particle(s) can be adsorbed to the liposome, such as through electrostatic interactions, and/or can be attached to the liposomes via a linker.

In some embodiments, the liposome can be a Trojan Horse liposome (also known in the art as Molecular Trojan Horses), see e.g., cshprotocols.cshlp.org/content/2010/4/pdb.prot5407.1ong, the teachings of which can be applied and/or adapted to generated and/or deliver the genetic modifying systems and/or other cargo polypeptides or polynucleotides described herein.

Other non-limiting, exemplary liposomes can be those as set forth in Wang et al., ACS Synthetic Biology, 1, 403-07 (2012); Wang et al., PNAS, 113(11) 2868-2873 (2016); Spuch and Navarro, Journal of Drug Delivery, vol. 2011, Article ID 469679, 12 pages, 2011. doi:10.1155/2011/469679; WO 2008/042973; U.S. Pat. No. 8,071,082; WO 2014/186366; 20160257951; US 20160129120; US 20160244761; US 20120251618; WO 2013/093648; Lipofectin (a combination of DOTMA and DOPE), Lipofectase, LIPOFECTAMINE.RTM. (e.g., LIPOFECTAMINE.RTM. 2000, LIPOFECTAMINE.RTM. 3000, LIPOFECTAMINE.RTM. RNAiMAX, LIPOFECTAMINE.RTM. LTX), SAINT-RED (Synvolux Therapeutics, Groningen Netherlands), DOPE, Cytofectin (Gilead Sciences, Foster City, Calif.), and Eufectins (JBL, San Luis Obispo, Calif.).

Stable Nucleic-Acid-Lipid Particles (SNALPs)

In some embodiments, the lipid particles contain or are composed entirely of stable nucleic acid lipid particles (SNALPs). SNALPs may comprise an ionizable lipid (DLinDMA) (e.g., cationic at low pH), a neutral helper lipid, cholesterol, a diffusible polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lipid, or any combination thereof. In some examples, SNALPs may comprise synthetic cholesterol, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, 3-N-[(w-methoxy polyethylene glycol)2000)carbamoyl]-1,2-dimyrestyloxypropylamine, and cationic 1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-N,Ndimethylaminopropane. In some examples, SNALPs may comprise synthetic cholesterol, 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, PEG-cDMA, and 1,2-dilinoleyloxy-3-(N;N-dimethyl)aminopropane (DLinDMAo).

Other non-limiting, exemplary SNALPs that can be used to deliver the cargos described herein can be any such SNALPs as described in Morrissey et al., Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 23, No. 8, August 2005, Zimmerman et al., Nature Letters, Vol. 441, 4 May 2006; Geisbert et al., Lancet 2010; 375: 1896-905; Judge, J. Clin. Invest. 119:661-673 (2009); and Semple et al., Nature Niotechnology, Volume 28 Number 2 February 2010, pp. 172-177.

Other Lipids

The lipid particles may also comprise one or more other types of lipids, e.g., cationic lipids, such as amino lipid 2,2-dilinoleyl-4-dimethylaminoethyl-[1,3]-dioxolane (DLin-KC2-DMA), DLin-KC2-DMA4, C12-200 and colipids disteroylphosphatidyl choline, cholesterol, and PEG-DMG.

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can be or include a lipidoid, such as any of those set forth in, for example, US 20110293703.

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can be or include an amino lipid, such as any of those set forth in, for example, Jayaraman, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 8529-8533.

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can be or include a lipid envelope, such as any of those set forth in, for example, Korman et al., 2011. Nat. Biotech. 29:154-157.

Lipoplexes/Polyplexes

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or be composed entirely of lipoplexes and/or polyplexes. Lipoplexes may bind to negatively charged cell membrane and induce endocytosis into the cells. Examples of lipoplexes may be complexes comprising lipid(s) and non-lipid components. Examples of lipoplexes and polyplexes include FuGENE-6 reagent, a non-liposomal solution containing lipids and other components, zwitterionic amino lipids (ZALs), Ca2k (e.g., forming DNA/Ca²⁺ microcomplexes), polyethenimine (PEI) (e.g., branched PEI), and poly(L-lysine) (PLL).

Sugar-Based Particles

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can be a sugar-based particle. In some embodiments, the sugar-based particles can be or include GalNAc, such as any of those described in WO2014118272; US 20020150626; Nair, J K et al., 2014, Journal of the American Chemical Society 136 (49), 16958-16961; Ostergaard et al., Bioconjugate Chem., 2015, 26 (8), pp 1451-1455.

Cell Penetrating Peptides

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs). CPPs are short peptides that facilitate cellular uptake of various molecular cargo (e.g., from nanosized particles to small chemical molecules and large fragments of DNA).

CPPs may be of different sizes, amino acid sequences, and charges. In some examples, CPPs can translocate the plasma membrane and facilitate the delivery of various molecular cargoes to the cytoplasm or an organelle. CPPs may be introduced into cells via different mechanisms, e.g., direct penetration in the membrane, endocytosis-mediated entry, and translocation through the formation of a transitory structure.

CPPs may have an amino acid composition that either contains a high relative abundance of positively charged amino acids such as lysine or arginine or has sequences that contain an alternating pattern of polar/charged amino acids and non-polar, hydrophobic amino acids. These two types of structures are referred to as polycationic or amphipathic, respectively. A third class of CPPs are the hydrophobic peptides, containing only apolar residues, with low net charge or have hydrophobic amino acid groups that are crucial for cellular uptake. Another type of CPPs is the trans-activating transcriptional activator (Tat) from Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1). Examples of CPPs include to Penetratin, Tat (48-60), Transportan, and (R-AhX-R4) (Ahx refers to aminohexanoyl), Kaposi fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signal peptide sequence, integrin β3 signal peptide sequence, polyarginine peptide Args sequence, Guanine rich-molecular transporters, and sweet arrow peptide. Examples of CPPs and related applications also include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,372,951.

CPPs can be used for in vitro and ex vivo work quite readily, and extensive optimization for each cargo and cell type is usually required. In some examples, CPPs may be covalently attached to the Cas protein directly, which is then complexed with the gRNA and delivered to cells. In some examples, separate delivery of CPP—Cas and CPP—gRNA to multiple cells may be performed. CPP may also be used to delivery RNPs.

CPPs may be used to deliver the compositions and systems to plants. In some examples, CPPs may be used to deliver the components to plant protoplasts, which are then regenerated to plant cells and further to plants.

DNA Nanoclews

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of DNA nanoclews. A DNA nanoclew refers to a sphere-like structure of DNA (e.g., with a shape of a ball of yarn). The nanoclew may be synthesized by rolling circle amplification with palindromic sequences that aide in the self-assembly of the structure. The sphere may then be loaded with a payload. An example of DNA nanoclew is described in Sun W et al, J Am Chem Soc. 2014 Oct. 22;136(42):14722-5; and Sun W et al, Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2015 Oct 5;54(41):12029-33. DNA nanoclew may have a palindromic sequences to be partially complementary to the gRNA within the Cas:gRNA ribonucleoprotein complex. A DNA nanoclew may be coated, e.g., coated with PEI to induce endosomal escape.

Metal Nanoparticles

in some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of metal nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of gold nanoparticles (also referred to AuNPs or colloidal gold). Gold nanoparticles may form complex with cargos, e.g., Cas:gRNA RNP. Gold nanoparticles may be coated, e.g., coated in a silicate and an endosomal disruptive polymer, PAsp(DET). Examples of gold nanoparticles include AuraSense Therapeutics' Spherical Nucleic Acid (SNA™) constructs, and those described in Mout R, et al. (2017). ACS Nano 11:2452-8; Lee K, et al. (2017). Nat Biomed Eng 1:889-901. Other metal nanoparticles can also be complexed with cargo(s). Such metal nanoparticles include, without limitation, tungsten, palladium, rhodium, platinum, and iridium particles. Other non-limiting, exemplary metal nanoparticles suitable for delivery vehicles are described in US 20100129793.

iTOP

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of iTOP. iTOP refers to a combination of small molecules drives the highly efficient intracellular delivery of native proteins, independent of any transduction peptide. iTOP may be used for induced transduction by osmocytosis and propanebetaine, using NaCl-mediated hyperosmolality together with a transduction compound (propanebetaine) to trigger macropinocytotic uptake into cells of extracellular macromolecules. Examples of iTOP methods and reagents include those described in D'Astolfo D S, Pagliero R J, Pras A, et al. (2015). Cell 161:674-690.

Polymer-Based Particles

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicles contain or are composed entirely of polymer-based particles (e.g., nanoparticles). In some embodiments, the polymer-based particles may mimic a viral mechanism of membrane fusion. The polymer-based particles may be a synthetic copy of Influenza virus machinery and form transfection complexes with various types of nucleic acids ((siRNA, miRNA, plasmid DNA or shRNA, mRNA) that cells take up via the endocytosis pathway, a process that involves the formation of an acidic compartment. The low pH in late endosomes acts as a chemical switch that renders the particle surface hydrophobic and facilitates membrane crossing. Once in the cytosol, the particle releases its payload for cellular action. This Active Endosome Escape technology is safe and maximizes transfection efficiency as it is using a natural uptake pathway. In some embodiments, the polymer-based particles may comprise alkylated and carboxyalkylated branched polyethylenimine. In some examples, the polymer-based particles are VIROMER, e.g., VIROMER RNAi, VIROMER RED, VIROMER mRNA, VIROMER CRISPR. Example methods of delivering the systems and compositions herein include those described in Bawage SS et al., Synthetic mRNA expressed Cas13a mitigates RNA virus infections, www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/370460v1.full doi: doi.org/10.1101/370460, Viromer® RED, a powerful tool for transfection of keratinocytes. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16993.61281, Viromer® Transfection—Factbook 2018: technology, product overview, users' data., doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23912.16642. Other exemplary and non-limiting polymeric particles suitable for delivery vehicles are described in US 20170079916, US 20160367686, US 20110212179, US 20130302401, U.S. Pat. No. 6,007,845, 5,855,913, 5,985,309, 5,543,158, WO2012135025, US 20130252281, US 20130245107, US 20130244279; US 20050019923, 20080267903.

Streptolysin O (SLO)

The delivery vehicles can contain or be composed entirely of streptolysin O (SLO). SLO is a toxin produced by Group A streptococci that works by creating pores in mammalian cell membranes. SLO may act in a reversible manner, which allows for the delivery of proteins (e.g., up to 100 kDa) to the cytosol of cells without compromising overall viability. Examples of SLO include those described in Sierig G, et al. (2003). Infect Immun 71:446-55; Walev I, et al. (2001). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:3185-90; Teng KW, et al. (2017). Elife 6:e25460.

Multifunctional Envelope-Type Nanodevice (MEND)

The delivery vehicles can contain or be composed entirely of multifunctional envelope-type nanodevice (MENDs). MENDs may comprise condensed plasmid DNA, a PLL core, and a lipid film shell. A MEND may further comprise cell-penetrating peptide (e.g., stearyl octaarginine). The cell penetrating peptide may be in the lipid shell. The lipid envelope may be modified with one or more functional components, e.g., one or more of: polyethylene glycol (e.g., to increase vascular circulation time), ligands for targeting of specific tissues/cells, additional cell-penetrating peptides (e.g., for greater cellular delivery), lipids to enhance endosomal escape, and nuclear delivery tags. In some examples, the MEND may be a tetra-lamellar MEND (T-MEND), which may target the cellular nucleus and mitochondria. In certain examples, a MEND may be a PEG-peptide-DOPE-conjugated MEND (PPD-MEND), which may target bladder cancer cells. Examples of MENDs include those described in Kogure K, et al. (2004). J Control Release 98:317-23; Nakamura T, et al. (2012). Acc Chem Res 45:1113-21.

Lipid-Coated Mesoporous Silica Particles

The delivery vehicles can contain or be composed entirely of lipid-coated mesoporous silica particles. Lipid-coated mesoporous silica particles may comprise a mesoporous silica nanoparticle core and a lipid membrane shell. The silica core may have a large internal surface area, leading to high cargo loading capacities. In some embodiments, pore sizes, pore chemistry, and overall particle sizes may be modified for loading different types of cargos. The lipid coating of the particle may also be modified to maximize cargo loading, increase circulation times, and provide precise targeting and cargo release. Examples of lipid-coated mesoporous silica particles include those described in Du X, et al. (2014). Biomaterials 35:5580-90; Durfee PN, et al. (2016). ACS Nano 10:8325-45.

Inorganic Nanoparticles

The delivery vehicles can contain or be composed entirely of inorganic nanoparticles. Examples of inorganic nanoparticles include carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (e.g., as described in Bates K and Kostarelos K. (2013). Adv Drug Deliv Rev 65:2023-33.), bare mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) (e.g., as described in Luo G F, et al. (2014). Sci Rep 4:6064), and dense silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) (as described in Luo D and Saltzman W M. (2000). Nat Biotechnol 18:893-5).

Exosomes

The delivery vehicles can contain or be composed entirely of exosomes. Exosomes include membrane bound extracellular vesicles, which can be used to contain and delivery various types of biomolecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, and complexes thereof (e.g., RNPs). Examples of exosomes include those described in Schroeder A, et al., J Intern Med. 2010 Jan;267(1):9-21; El-Andaloussi S, et al., Nat Protoc. 2012 Dec;7(12):2112-26; Uno Y, et al., Hum Gene Ther. 2011 Jun;22(6):711-9; Zou W, et al., Hum Gene Ther. 2011 Apr;22(4):465-75.

In some examples, the exosome forms a complex (e.g., by binding directly or indirectly) to one or more components of the cargo. In certain examples, a molecule of an exosome may be fused with first adapter protein and a component of the cargo may be fused with a second adapter protein. The first and the second adapter protein may specifically bind each other, thus associating the cargo with the exosome. Examples of such exosomes include those described in Ye Y, et al., Biomater Sci. 2020 Apr 28. doi: 10.1039/d0bm00427h.

Other non-limiting, exemplary exosomes include any of those set forth in Alvarez-Erviti et al. 2011, Nat Biotechnol 29: 341; El-Andaloussi et al. (Nature Protocols 7:2112-2126(2012); and Wahlgren et al. (Nucleic Acids Research, 2012, Vol. 40, No. 17 e130).

Spherical Nucleic Acids (SNAs)

Spherical nucleic acids (SNA) are three-dimensional arrangements of nucleic acids, with densely packed and radially arranged oligonucleotides on a central nanoparticle core. In its simplest form the SNA is composed of oligonucleotides and a core. In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can contain or be composed entirely of SNAs. SNAs are three dimensional nanostructures that can be composed of densely functionalized and highly oriented nucleic acids that can be covalently attached to the surface of spherical nanoparticle cores. The core may be a hollow core which is produced by a 3-dimensional arrangement of molecules which form the outer boundary of the core. For instance, the molecules may be in the form of a lipid layer or bilayer which has a hollow center. In other embodiments, the molecules may be in the form of lipids, such as amphipathic lipids, i.e., sterols which are linked to an end the oligonucleotide. Sterols such as cholesterol linked to an end of an oligonucleotide may associate with one another and form the outer edge of a hollow core with the oligonucleotides radiating outward from the core. The core may also be a solid or semi-solid core.

The oligonucleotides to be delivered can be associated with the core of an SNP. An oligonucleotide that is associated with the core may be covalently linked to the core or non-covalently linked to the core, i.e., potentially through hydrophobic interactions. For instance, when a sterol forms the outer edge of the core an oligonucleotide may be covalently linked to the sterol directly or indirectly. When a lipid layer forms the core, the oligonucleotide may be covalently linked to the lipid or may be non-covalently linked to the lipids e.g., by interactions with the oligonucleotide or a molecule such as a cholesterol attached to the oligonucleotide directly or indirectly through a linker.

A spherical nucleic acid (SNA) can be functionalized in order to attach a polynucleotide. Alternatively or additionally, the polynucleotide can be functionalized. One mechanism for functionalization is the alkanethiol method, whereby oligonucleotides are functionalized with alkanethiols at their 3′ or 5′ termini prior to attachment to gold nanoparticles or nanoparticles comprising other metals, semiconductors or magnetic materials. Such methods are described, for example Whitesides, Proceedings of the Robert A. Welch Foundation 39th Conference on Chemical Research Nanophase Chemistry, Houston, Tex., pages 109-121 (1995), and Mucic et al. Chem. Commun. 555-557 (1996). Oligonucleotides can also be attached to nanoparticles using other functional groups such as phosophorothioate groups, as described in and incorporated by reference from U.S. Pat. No. 5,472,881, or substituted alkylsiloxanes, as described in and incorporated by reference from Burwell, Chemical Technology, 4, 370-377 (1974) and Matteucci and Caruthers, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 103, 3185-3191 (1981). In some instances, oligonucleotides are attached to nanoparticles by terminating the polynucleotide with a 5′ or 3′ thionucleoside. In other instances, an aging process is used to attach oligonucleotides to nanoparticles as described in and incorporated by reference from U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,361,944, 6,506,569, 6,767,702 and 6,750,016 and PCT Publication Nos. WO 1998/004740, WO 2001/000876, WO 2001/051665 and WO 2001/073123. In some embodiments, the core is a metal core. In some embodiments, the core is an inorganic metal core. In some embodiments, the core is a gold core.

In some instances, the oligonucleotide is attached or inserted in the SNA. A spacer sequence can be included between the attachment site and the oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, a spacer sequence comprises or consists of an oligonucleotide, a peptide, a polymer or an oligoethylene glycol. In a preferred embodiment, the spacer is oligoethylene glycol and more preferably, hexaethyleneglycol.

Non-limiting, exemplary SNAs can be any of those set forth in Cutler et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011 133:9254-9257, Hao et al., Small. 2011 7:3158-3162, Zhang et al., ACS Nano. 2011 5:6962-6970, Cutler et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012 134:1376-1391, Young et al., Nano Lett. 2012 12:3867-71, Zheng et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012 109:11975-80, Mirkin, Nanomedicine 2012 7:635-638 Zhang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012 134:16488-1691, Weintraub, Nature 2013 495:S14-S16, Choi et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2013 110(19):7625-7630, Jensen et al., Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 209ra152 (2013) and Mirkin, et al., U.S. Pat. App. Pub. US20210002640 and US20200188521.

Self-Assembling Nanoparticles

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle contains or is composed entirely of a self-assembling nanoparticle. The self-assembling nanoparticles can contain one or more polymers. The self-assembling nanoparticles can be PEGylated. Self-assembling nanoparticles are known in the art. Non-limiting, exemplary self-assembling nanoparticles can any as set forth in Schiffelers et al., Nucleic Acids Research, 2004, Vol. 32, No. 19, Bartlett et al. (PNAS, September 25, 2007,vol. 104, no. 39; Davis et al., Nature, Vol 464, 15 April 2010.

Supercharged Proteins

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle contains or is composed entirely of supercharged protein. As used herein “Supercharged proteins” are a class of engineered or naturally occurring proteins with unusually high positive or negative net theoretical charge. Non-limiting, exemplary supercharged proteins can be any of those set forth in Lawrence et al., 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society 129, 10110-10112.

Targeted Delivery

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle is configured for targeted delivery to a specific cell, tissue, organ, or system. In such embodiments, the delivery vehicle can include one or more targeting moieties that can direct targeted delivery of the cargo(s). In an embodiment, the delivery vehicle comprises a targeting moiety, such as on its surface. Exemplary targeting moieties include, without limitation, small molecule, polypeptide, and/or polynucleotide ligands for cell surface molecules, antibodies, affibodies, aptamers, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a targeted delivery vehicle can be generated by coupling, conjugating, attaching, or otherwise associating a targeting moiety with a delivery vehicle described elsewhere herein. In some embodiments, multiple targeting moieties with different targets are coupled to a delivery vehicle. In some embodiments a multivalent approach can be employed. Multivalent presentation of targeting moieties (e.g., antibodies) can also increase the uptake and signaling properties of targeting moiety fragments. In some embodiments, targeted delivery can be to one cell type or to multiple cell types. Methods of coupling conjugating, attaching, or otherwise associating a targeting moiety with a delivery vehicle are generally known in the art.

In some embodiments, the targeting moiety is an aptamer. Aptamers are ssDNA or RNA oligonucleotides that impart high affinity and specific recognition of the target molecules by electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions as opposed to the Watson-Crick base pairing, which is typical for the bonding interactions of oligonucleotides. Aptamers as a targeting moiety can have advantages over antibodies: aptamers can demonstrate higher target antigen recognition as compared with antibodies; aptamers can be more stable and smaller in size as compared with antibodies; aptamers can be easily synthesized and chemically modified for molecular conjugation; and aptamers can be changed in sequence for improved selectivity and can be developed to recognize poorly immunogenic targets.

Targeted delivery includes intracellular delivery. Delivery vehicles that utilize the endocytic pathway are entrapped in the endosomes (pH 6.5-6) and subsequently fuse with lysosomes (pH <5), where they undergo degradation that results in a lower therapeutic potential. The low endosomal pH can be taken advantage of to escape degradation. Fusogenic lipids or peptides, which destabilize the endosomal membrane after the conformational transition/activation at a lowered pH can be included in the delivery vehicle. Such lipids or peptides can include amines, which are protonated at an acidic pH and cause endosomal swelling and rupture by a buffer effect, pore-forming protein listeriolysin 0, histidine-rich peptides have the ability to fuse with the endosomal membrane, resulting in pore formation, and can buffer the proton pump causing membrane lysis, and/or unsaturated dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) that readily adopt an inverted hexagonal shape at a low pH and causes fusion of liposomes to the endosomal membrane. Inclusion of such molecules can result in an efficient endosomal release and/or may provide an endosomal escape mechanism to increase cargo delivery by the vehicle.

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle is or includes modified CPP(s) that can facilitate intracellular delivery via macropinocytosis followed by endosomal escape. CPPs are described in greater detail elsewhere herein.

In some embodiments, targeted delivery is organelle-specific targeted delivery. A delivery vehicle can be surface-functionalized with a targeting moiety that can direct organelle specific delivery, such as a nuclear localization sequence, ribosomal entry sequence, mitochondria specific moiety, and/or the like. The invention further comprehends a lipid entity of the invention targeting the nucleus, e.g., via a DNA-intercalating moiety.

In some embodiments, the targeted delivery is multifunctional targeted delivery that can be accomplished by attaching more than one targeting moiety to the surface of the delivery vehicle. In some embodiments, such an enhances accumulation in a desired site and/or promotes organelle-specific delivery and/or target a particular type of cell and/or respond to the local environmental stimuli such as temperature (e.g., elevated), pH (e.g., acidic or basic), respond to targeted or localized externally applied stimuli such as a magnetic field, light, energy, heat or ultrasound (e.g., responsive delivery, which is described in greater detail elsewhere herein) and/or promote intracellular delivery of the cargo.

Exemplary targeting moieties are generally known in the art, and include without limitation, those described in e.g., in e.g., Deshpande et al, “Current trends in the use of liposomes for tumor targeting,” Nanomedicine (Lond). 8(9), doi:10.2217/nnm.13.118 (2013), International Patent Publication No. WO 2016/027264, Lorenzer et al, “Going beyond the liver: Progress and challenges of targeted delivery of siRNA therapeutics,” Journal of Controlled Release, 203: 1-15 (2015); Surace et al, “Lipoplexes targeting the CD44 hyaluronic acid receptor for efficient transfection of breast cancer cells,” J. Mol Pharm 6(4):1062-73; doi: 10.1021/mp800215d (2009); Sonoke et al, “Galactose-modified cationic liposomes as a liver-targeting delivery system for small interfering RNA,” Biol Pharm Bull. 34(8):1338-42 (2011); Torchilin, “Antibody-modified liposomes for cancer chemotherapy,” Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 5 (9), 1003-1025 (2008); Manjappa et al, “Antibody derivatization and conjugation strategies: application in preparation of stealth immunoliposome to target chemotherapeutics to tumor,” J. Control. Release 150 (1), 2-22 (2011); Sofou S “Antibody-targeted liposomes in cancer therapy and imaging,” Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 5 (2): 189-204 (2008); Gao J et al, “Antibody-targeted immunoliposomes for cancer treatment,” Mini. Rev. Med. Chem. 13(14): 2026-2035 (2013); Molavi et al, “Anti-CD30 antibody conjugated liposomal doxorubicin with significantly improved therapeutic efficacy against anaplastic large cell lymphoma,” Biomaterials 34(34):8718-25 (2013), Zhao et al., 2020. Cell 181:151-167, particularly at tables 1-5; Liu et al., Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2021. 9:701504. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.701504; US20210379192 (describes exemplary skeletal muscle cell targeting moieties), Snow-Lisy et al., Drug. Deliv. Transl. Res. 1:351(2011); US20060263336 (describes exemplary progenitor cell targeting moieties) each of which and the documents cited therein are hereby incorporated herein by reference.

Other exemplary targeting moieties are described elsewhere herein, such as epitope tags, reporter and selectable markers, and/or the like which can be configured for and/or operate in some embodiments as targeting moieties.

Responsive Delivery

In some embodiments, the delivery vehicle can allow for responsive delivery of the cargo(s). Responsive delivery, as used in this context herein, refers to delivery of cargo(s) by the delivery vehicle in response to an external stimuli. Examples of suitable stimuli include, without limitation, an energy (light, heat, cold, and the like), a chemical stimuli (e.g., chemical composition, etc.), and a biologic or physiologic stimuli (e.g., environmental pH, osmolarity, salinity, biologic molecule, etc.). In some embodiments, a targeting moiety is responsive to an external stimuli and facilitate responsive delivery. In other embodiments, responsiveness is determined by a non-targeting moiety component of the delivery vehicle.

In some embodiments, the responsive delivery is stimuli-sensitive, e.g., sensitive to an externally applied stimuli, such as magnetic fields, ultrasound or light; and pH-triggering can also be used, e.g., a labile linkage can be used between a hydrophilic moiety such as PEG and a hydrophobic moiety such as a lipid entity of the invention, which is cleaved only upon exposure to the relatively acidic conditions characteristic of the a particular environment or microenvironment such as an endocytic vacuole or the acidotic tumor mass. pH-sensitive copolymers can also be incorporated in embodiments of the invention can provide shielding; diortho esters, vinyl esters, cysteine-cleavable lipopolymers, double esters and hydrazones are a few examples of pH-sensitive bonds that are quite stable at pH 7.5, but are hydrolyzed relatively rapidly at pH 6 and below, e.g., a terminally alkylated copolymer of N-isopropylacrylamide and methacrylic acid that copolymer facilitates destabilization of a lipid entity of the invention and release in compartments with decreased pH value; or, the invention comprehends ionic polymers for generation of a pH-responsive lipid entity of the invention (e.g., poly(methacrylic acid), poly(diethylaminoethyl methacrylate), poly(acrylamide) and poly(acrylic acid)).

In some embodiments, the responsive delivery is temperature-triggered delivery. Many pathological areas, such as inflamed tissues and tumors, show a distinctive hyperthermia compared with normal tissues. Utilizing this hyperthermia is an attractive strategy in cancer therapy since hyperthermia is associated with increased tumor permeability and enhanced uptake. This technique involves local heating of the site to increase microvascular pore size and blood flow, which, in turn, can result in an increased extravasation of embodiments of the invention. Temperature-sensitive lipid entity of the invention can be prepared from thermosensitive lipids or polymers with a low critical solution temperature. Above the low critical solution temperature (e.g., at site such as tumor site or inflamed tissue site), the polymer precipitates, disrupting the liposomes to release. Lipids with a specific gel-to-liquid phase transition temperature are used to prepare these lipid entities of the invention; and a lipid for a thermosensitive embodiment can be dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. Thermosensitive polymers can also facilitate destabilization followed by release, and a useful thermosensitive polymer is poly (N-isopropylacrylamide). Another temperature triggered system can employ lysolipid temperature-sensitive liposomes.

In some embodiments, the responsive delivery is redox-triggered delivery. The difference in redox potential between normal and inflamed or tumor tissues, and between the intra- and extra-cellular environments has been exploited for delivery, e.g., GSH is a reducing agent abundant in cells, especially in the cytosol, mitochondria and nucleus. The GSH concentrations in blood and extracellular matrix are just one out of 100 to one out of 1000 of the intracellular concentration, respectively. This high redox potential difference caused by GSH, cysteine and other reducing agents can break the reducible bonds, destabilize a lipid entity of the invention and result in release of payload. The disulfide bond can be used as the cleavable/reversible linker in a lipid entity of the invention, because it causes sensitivity to redox owing to the disulfideto-thiol reduction reaction; a lipid entity of the invention can be made reduction sensitive by using two (e.g., two forms of a disulfide-conjugated multifunctional lipid as cleavage of the disulfide bond (e.g., via tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine, dithiothreitol, L-cysteine or GSH), can cause removal of the hydrophilic head group of the conjugate and alter the membrane organization leading to release of payload. Calcein release from reduction-sensitive lipid entity of the invention containing a disulfide conjugate can be more useful than a reduction-insensitive embodiment.

Enzymes can also be used as a trigger to release payload. Enzymes, including MMPs (e.g. MMP2), phospholipase A2, alkaline phosphatase, transglutaminase or phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C, have been found to be overexpressed in certain tissues, e.g., tumor tissues. In the presence of these enzymes, specially engineered enzyme-sensitive lipid entity of the invention can be disrupted and release the payload. an MMP2-cleavable octapeptide (Gly-Pro-Leu-Gly-Ile-Ala-Gly-Gln (SEQ ID No: 59)) can be incorporated into a linker, and can have antibody targeting, e.g., antibody 2C5.

In some embodiments, the responsive delivery is light-or energy-triggered delivery, e.g., the lipid entity of the invention can be light-sensitive, such that light or energy can facilitate structural and conformational changes, which lead to direct interaction of the lipid entity of the invention with the target cells via membrane fusion, photo-isomerism, photofragmentation or photopolymerization; such a moiety therefor can be benzoporphyrin photosensitizer. Ultrasound can be a form of energy to trigger delivery; a lipid entity of the invention with a small quantity of particular gas, including air or perfluorated hydrocarbon can be triggered to release with ultrasound, e.g., low-frequency ultrasound (LFUS). Magnetic delivery: A lipid entity of the invention can be magnetized by incorporation of magnetites, such as Fe3O4 or γ-Fe2O3, e.g., those that are less than 10 nm in size. Targeted delivery can be then by exposure to a magnetic field. Responsive delivery to the testis has been described. See e.g., He et al., 2015. Oncol. Rep. 34(5)-2318 (describes ultrasound microbubble-mediated delivery to the testis); Li et al., Curr. Drug. Deliv. 2020 17(5):438-446 (describes heat stress and pulsed unfocused ultrasound delivery into testicular seminiferous tubules), which can be adapted for use with the present disclosure to provide responsive delivery to the testis or testicular cell.

Further embodiments are illustrated in the following Examples which are given for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

Feed and Food Products

The engineered fish described herein can be used as a feed or food source for humans or other animals. Without being bound by theory, the engineered fish described herein can have increased muscle mass or other growth properties that make them advantageous as a commercial food source. The feed or food source can contain all or part of the engineered fish.

Described in certain example embodiments herein are feed and/or food product comprising an engineered fish or portion thereof, wherein the engineered fish comprises a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to an unmodified control.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises a modified myostatin gene.

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish further comprises one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein (a) a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; (b) a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous; or (c) both (a) and (b).

In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturu. In certain example embodiments, the engineered fish is I. punctatus, I. furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus.

The engineered fish or portion thereof can be combined with other feed or food product ingredients.

The feed or food product described herein can be frozen, cooled, chilled, freeze dried, dried, cooked, or otherwise prepared for consumption, shipment, and/or storage. The feed or food product described herein can be packaged in appropriate packaging. In some embodiments, the packaging is a reduced oxygen environment packaging.

Other applications and uses of the engineered fish described herein will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the description provided herein and are within the spirit and scope of the disclosure herein.

EXAMPLES

Now having described the embodiments of the present disclosure, in general, the following Examples describe some additional embodiments of the present disclosure. While embodiments of the present disclosure are described in connection with the following examples and the corresponding text and figures, there is no intent to limit embodiments of the present disclosure to this description. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents included within the spirit and scope of embodiments of the present disclosure. The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to perform the methods and use the probes disclosed and claimed herein. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C., and pressure is at or near atmospheric. Standard temperature and pressure are defined as 20° C. and 1 atmosphere.

Example 1—Growth and Survival of Myostatin Gene Edited Channel Catfish, Ictalurus Punctatus 1. Introduction

Myostatin (MSTN) is a member of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily. It has been identified as an important gene in the regulation of skeletal muscle growth in vertebrates (Lee et al., 2001) by inhibiting myogenesis and hypertrophy (Thomas et al., 2000). Natural mutations in the gene have been associated with individuals displaying significant increases in growth and double muscling as seen in breeds of cattle, Bos taurus, such as the Belgian Blue and Piedmontese (McPherron et al., 1997). MSTN mutants have also been found in sheep, Ovis aries, goats, Capra aegagrus hircus, dogs, Canis lupus familiaris, and chickens, Gallus gallus domesticus (Clop et al., 2006, Mosher et al., 2007, Ye et al., 2007, Zhang et al., 2012). As such, myostatin is considered a valuable gene for increasing growth in animals raised for human consumption.

Advances in gene editing technology allows for precise deletions of genomic DNA, vastly expanding the research and commercial capabilities of the myostatin gene in a variety of animal food species. The myostatin gene is highly conserved among vertebrates (McPherron et al., 1997), however, the role of myostatin varies among different taxa (Maccatrozzo et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2018). While mammalian myostatin is regulated by a single copy of the gene and expressed exclusively in skeletal muscle, two copies of the myostatin gene have been identified in many species of teleost fish, with salmonids containing four copies due to a second duplication event. Moreover, myostatin is differentially expressed in many tissues of fish (Maccatrozzo et al., 2001; østbye et al., 2007). Within diploid teleosts myostatin-b retains its role in muscle development while myostatin-a relates to immune function (Wang et al., 2018). Ictalurid catfish are unique in possessing only a single copy of the myostatin gene, found on chromosome 6, containing 3 exons and most closely resembling MSTN-b in other diploid teleosts (Kocabas et al., 2002; Gregory et al., 2004; Karim et al., 2017).

Perhaps due to the variety of roles of myostatin across different taxa, its effect on growth shows high variability. Even within teleost fish, change in body weight between MSTN KO fish and wild type ranged from an 88 percent increase in spotted halibut, Verasper variegatus, (Li et al., 2012) to a 11 percent decrease in red sea bream, Pagrus major, (Kishimoto, 2018). In general, however, fish with a mutated myostatin gene show in an increase in body weight when compared to controls. This includes increases of 12% in olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, at 250 days post hatch (dph), 15.5% and 55% in common carp, Cyprinus carpio, at 90 dph and 30 dph respectively, 52% in zebrafish, Danio rerio, males and 52% in females at 6mpf, 80% and 25% in medaka, Oryzias latipes, at 5 wph and 8 wph respectively, 30% in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, at 40 dph, 46% in zebrafish at 120 dph and 30% in medaka at 16 wph (Chisada et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2016; Zhong et. al., 2016; Khalil et al. 2017; Yeh et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018; Kim et. al., 2019). Similar results are found in studies of other vertebrate taxa including increases in body weight of 8% in male chicken, Gallus gallus domesticus, at 18 wph, 31% in rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, 23% in sheep, Ovis aries, 15% in pigs, Sus scrofa domesticus, at birth, 26% in male mice, Mus musculus, and 29% in female mice (Guo et al., 2009; Lv et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2016; Lv et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018; Kim et. al., 2020;).

Myostatin also appears to play an important role in the immune system of teleost fish. In MSTN gene edited medaka challenged with red spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV), there were reduced expression levels of the interferon-stimulated genes, which is associated with viral immune response, when compared with the wild type, and subsequent high levels of the virus copy number (Chiang et al., 2016). These same mutants were 25 percent larger than the wild type (Chiang et al, 2016). When wild-type zebrafish were stressed under high stocking density, expression of both MSTN-1 (a) and MSTN-2 (b) was significantly higher in the spleen when compared to fish in low stocking densities (Helterline et al., 2007). There was no change in expression of MSTN-1 or MSTN-2 in the muscle or brain between either density treatment (Helterline et al., 2007). The upregulation in only the spleen, the primary immune organ in fish, during stress, indicates the potential role of both MSTN genes in immune response.

In another zebrafish study in which both MSTN-a and MSTN-b were knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9, mutations in both paralogues caused a reduction in transcriptional levels of several critical immune-related genes and subsequent increased mortality when exposed to Edwardsiella tarda (Wang et al., 2018). After exposure to E. tarda, the MSTN-b, but not MSTN-a, mutants had reduced expression of the important immune-related transcription factor NF-κB, and consequently, several pro-inflammatory cytokines (Wang et al., 2018). These results indicate that while both paralogues contribute to the immune response, MSTN-b impacts the immune system through activation of the NF-κB pathway, while MSTN-a likely acts upstream of NF-κB (Wang et al., 2018).

The orange spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides, like the channel catfish, appears to have only one copy of the MSTN gene, which plays a role in disease resistance (Chen et al., 2017). Infection by nervous necrosis virus (NNV) in orange-spotted grouper induced myostatin promoter activity (Chen et al., 2017). This could be either due to the direct role of MSTN in disease resistance, or an immune response by the fish to allocate resources towards fighting infection, rather than promoting growth by upregulating MSTN. However, in a study on Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus), liver isozyme activity was higher in fish fed diets of MSTN inhibitory peptides (Li et al., 2017). These findings indicate that reducing MSTN activity could improve immune capacity.

While there is high conservation in sequence and protein structure of both MSTN paralogues, this does not necessarily imply conservation of function. In mice, GDF11 is 90 percent identical to MSTN (GDF8), yet their functions are completely different with MSTN regulating skeletal muscle growth and GDF11 acts as a neurogenesis inhibitor (Wu et al., 2003; Gabillard et al., 2013). This is largely due to the variation in expression both temporally and spatially, with MSTN expressed primarily in muscle and GDF11 expressed in the brain (Wu et al, 2003; Gabillard et al., 2013). These discrepancies highlight the importance of research on commercially important species, and not relying solely on model species.

While there has been a large amount of research on the myostatin gene, its commercial use in agriculture has been mostly limited to natural mutations and selective breeding. Its limited industrial use can be attributed both to lack of technology, regulation on genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and an incomplete understanding of how the gene effects species across taxa. With the advent and advances of CRISPR/Cas9 and other gene editing technologies, commercialization is possible. In 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved AquaBounty Technologies Inc. to raise the first genetically engineered animal (Atlantic salmon) for human consumption in the United States (Waltz et al., 2017). This event serves as a breakthrough for a growing aquaculture industry in the United States and abroad and it is expected to open the door to more mainstream use of genetic editing and engineering in the near future. With this understanding, it is essential that we improve our understanding of commercially important genes and further develop efficient methods of genetic enhancement.

Preliminary efforts demonstrated a high potential for improvement by generating myostatin knock out (MSTN-KO) lines. Myostatin gene edited channel catfish showed a 29.7 percent increase in body weight at 40 days post microinjection (Khalil et al., 2017). Histological analysis of muscle tissue showed that mutated individuals exhibited hyperplasia (33.7% increase in fiber number) and hypertrophy (2% increase in fiber diameter) of muscle fibers compared to controls (FIGS. 1A-1H) (Khalil et al., 2017).

Genetic redundancy, in which two or more genes share similar function, is fairly common, particularly relating to survival traits (Nowak et al., 1997; DeLuna et al., 2008; DeLuna et al., 2010). Functional knock out or reduced expression of a gene can cause an overexpression of other genes to compensate for its lack of function, especially if there is a paralogous gene (DeLuna etal., 2010). However, upregulation of a gene due to deletion of its paralog is fairly uncommon (˜11%) except in the cases where overlapping function is essential for viability (DeLuna et al., 2010). In fish with multiple MSTN genes, it is possible that knock out of one gene would cause upregulation of its paralog. However, in fish with a single copy, such as ictalurid catfish, this compensatory effect may be taken up by another growth-related gene. Mutations in the SLC30A10 gene are associated with hypermagnesemia with dystonia, polycythemia and cirrhosis (HMDPC); a fatal disease due to excessive amounts of magnesium in the body (Xia et al., 2017). Zebrafish with mutated SLC30A10 genes had severe neurological and liver defects when exposed to high environmental Mn levels (Xia et al., 2017). However, overexpression of ATP2C1 (ATPase secretory pathway Ca2+ transporting 1) protected mutant embryos from Mn exposure, indicating compensatory role of ATP2C1 in the absence of SL30A10 (Xia et al., 2017). Overexpression of Hoxb4 in bone marrow cells promotes the growth of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) (Biji et al., 2006). In homozygous Hoxb4 mutant mice, HSC levels remained normal due to compensatory up-regulation of several related Hoxb genes (Biji et al., 2006). To date, there have been no studies looking at compensatory gene effects in commercial aquaculture species. It is essential that the discipline examine expression of growth-related genes in MSTN gene edited channel catfish.

Disease resistance is a critical trait as 40% of all aquaculture production (Owens, 2012) and 40% of catfish production (Tucker, 2012) is lost to disease. Bacterial disease dominated the total number of submitted disease cases in the catfish industry in recent years (Peterman and Posadas, 2019). The most common bacterial infections in catfish are enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC) (Edwardsiella ictaluri), E. pisicida, columnaris disease (Flavobacterium columnare), and motile Aeromonas septicemia (MAS) (Aeromonas hydrophila and related motile aeromonads perhaps in conjunction with A. veronii) (Plumb and Hanson 2010; Tekedar et al., 2013). Further improvement is needed as direct economic loss due to diseases can be extrapolated at a minimum of $60 million/yr (Zhou et al., 2018, Peterman and Posadas, 2019), and there are additional costs associated with disease management.

This Example demonstrates at least knock out the myostatin (MSTN) gene in channel catfish, evaluation of the growth of the MSTN-KO fish, inheritance of the knock-out in the F1 generations, survival and disease resistance, gene expression, and effect of zygosity on growth rate. Mutation rate, growth rate, survival and gene expression at different target sites for different generations (P1 vs F1) and species were alsom compared. Finally, disease resistance to Edwardsiella ictaluri (ESC) was evaluated between mutants and wild type controls.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Preparation of sgRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 System

Three customized small guide RNAs (sgRNAs) were designed and generated using the Maxiscript T7 PCR-based method. First, three gene-specific oligonucleotides (MSTN1, MSTN2, MSTN3; FIGS. 1A-1H) containing the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) were designed using the CRISPRscan online tool to target the channel catfish MSTN gene (GenBank Accession No. AF396747.1). Exon 1 was targeted in all four sgRNA sites in order to truncate the protein as far upstream as possible to ensure the largest knockout effect. The Universal Primer (Table 1), containing the sgRNA scaffold was obtained from Thermo Fisher Scientific. Each oligonucleotide was reconstituted using DNase/RNase Free water to form a high stock at 10mM. To create the template for sgRNA synthesis, the three oligos were used to were synthesize double stranded DNA (dsDNA) by mixing 25 μl 2× EconoTaq Plus Master Mix (Lucigen), 12.5 μl Universal Primer, and 12.5 μl gene-specific oligonucleotide. PCR cycling was carried out with initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 5 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 50° C. for 30 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 30 sec; 20 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, extension at 72° C. for 20 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The Taq Polymerase was then inactivated using 4.8 μl of 0.5M ultrapure EDTA and incubated at 75° C. for 20 min. The PCR product was confirmed using 1% agarose gel. The sgRNA was synthesized using the Maxiscript T7 Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), following the manufacture's guidelines. A mix of 2 μl dH2O, 10 μl dsDNA Template (created above), 2 μl 10× buffer, 1 μl ATP, 1 μl CTP, 1 μl GTP, 1 μl UTP and 2 μl Enzyme Mix was incubated at 37° C. for 90 min. The solution was cleared of DNA contamination by adding 1 μl of Turbo DNase I (Thermo Fisher Scientific), vortexing briefly and incubating at 37° C. for 15 min. The magnesium ions were chelated by adding 5 μl of 0.5M EDTA. The Turbo DNase I was inactivated by heating the solution at 75° C. for 10 min. The obtained sgRNAs were purified using Zymo RNA Clean and Concentrator kit (Zymo Research). The sgRNAs were stored in a −80° C. freezer.

The Cas9 protein was acquired from PNA Bio (3541 Old Conejo Rd, Newbury Park, Calif. 91320) and reconstituted in dH₂0 to a concentration of lmg/ml. Twenty minutes prior to fertilizing the eggs, three sets of injection solutions were prepared by mixing equal parts of Cas9 protein with each of the sgRNAs individually, and a fourth solution combining all three sgRNA with Cas9 protein (MSTNmix). The mixture was incubated on ice for 10 minutes before adding phenol red to a total ratio of 1:1:1 of Cas9, sgRNA and phenol red, respectively. The final concentrations of Cas9 protein and sgRNA were 300-350 ng/μl and 150-200ng/μl, respectively.

TABLE 1 SEQ ID Oligo sequence (5′ to 3′) Oligo name NO: AAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGATAACG Universal Primer 60 GACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAGCTCTAAAAC taatacgactcactataGGGATGGCGCTGATCACCAGgtt MC4R-A 61 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGAAAGGAACTCGGAGTCgttt MC4R-B 62 tagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCAGGATGGTGAGCGTCAgtt MC4R-C 63 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGTGGTGGCGTTCGGTCCGAgtt MSTN1 64 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCGAGGCGCAGTGTTCAGgtM MSTN2 65 agagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGTCGAGCAGCTGCTGCACgtM MSTN3 66 agagctagaa GGAGATGGAGGACACGGAAG MC4R-ALL-1F 67 GAGACATGAAGCAGACGCAATA MC4R-ALL-1R 68 taatacgactcactataGTGATGGCGCTGATCACCAGgtM MC4R-A2-sense 69 agagctagaa taatacgactcactataCGGGATGCAGCATGCACACCgtM MC4R-D-antisense 70 agagctagaa taatacgactcactataCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGATGCCgtt PUC57 Vector 71 ttagagctagaa TATCGAACGCGACAGAAACGGCTGTGATGGCGCTGATCAC BsalElvol2_ssODN1 72 GCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCGTCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGAT BsalElvol2_ssODN2 73 CAGCGGCAACCTGACCATCTCTGGAGACGTCGTGAAAAGC GAGGAGGTCTTGCGGATATGAACGTGTCGGAGCACCACGG BsalElvol2_ssODN3 74 GCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCGTCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGAT BsalElvol2_ssODN4 75 GATGCAGCATGCACACCGGAACCACAGCCTGGGCGTGCAG ACTCCTCTCTGAGACCTGAC EX1-F 76 AGTTAGGCTATGAAGCAGTAGT EX1-R 77 CGAAATCCGTTCCTTTTTACTG Evol2-F 78 CTGGCCTGTTCCTCATGTATTT Evol2-R 79

Table 1 shows primers used to amplify partial sequences of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, oligonucleotides to target specified regions for CRISPR/Cas9 cleavage and single-stranded oligo donor nucleotide (ssODN). Universal primer was used to bind oligonucleotides to Cas-9 protein. Red letters indicate binding site to target gRNAs. MC4R-A, MC4R-B, MC4R-C, MC4R-A2-sense and MC4R-D-antisense were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MSTN-1, MSTN-2 and MSTN-3 were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MC4R-ALL-1F and MC4R-ALL-1R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. EX1-F and EX1-R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. PUC57 Vector was used to amplify a partial sequence of the Evol2 plasmid containing the elongase gene. BsalElvol2_ssODN1 and BsalElvol2_ssODN2 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-A2-sense gRNA to facilitate Homologous Directed Repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene. BsalElvol2_ssODN3 and BsalElvol2_ssODN4 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-D-antisense gRNA to facilitate Homologous Directed Repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene.

2.2. Brood Stock Husbandry, Selection and Spawning

Brood stock were cultured in 0.04-ha earthen ponds averaging 1-meter in depth. They were fed a 32 percent protein catfish pellet at 1-2% of their body weight per day five days per week. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 3 mg/L using a ¹/₂ horsepower surface aerator (Air-O-Lator).

The Kansas strain of channel catfish was chosen as broodstock due to their superior growth and fry output when induced by injection of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogs (LHRHa). Individuals were chosen based on their health and secondary sexual characteristics. Males with well-developed papilla and large, muscular heads that were wider than the rest of their bodies were chosen. Dark coloring and scarring from territorial fighting were also signs of quality males in reproductive condition. Females with soft, well-rounded abdomen that were wider than their head, and a swollen urogenital opening were chosen. Broodstock were minimally handled and kept in tanks for as short a time as possible to avoid stress.

Males were terminated by a percussive blow to the head followed by pithing. The body cavity was opened carefully with a scalpel, ensuring not to pierce any organs. Testes were removed using tweezers and/or scissors and washed in a weigh boat with 0.9 percent saline using bottled distilled water, removing any blood or tissue. The water was drained, and the testes weighed before macerating the testes using scissors to release sperm. The homogenized testes were then filtered into a 50 mL falcon tube using a 100-micron screen. The sperm was then diluted with 0.9 percent saline solution to a maximum of 10 mL/gram of testes. Sperm concentration was tested using a Nanodrop 2000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and running a simple linear regression between sperm concentration and absorbance using the equation y=−2.450+0.1851nX (Adjusted R2=0.601) at 450 nm (Cuevas-Uribe & Tiersch, 2011). Motility was analyzed under a 10× light microscope while sperm count was checked under 40× magnification. Ideally, sperm was used immediately, but could be stored at 4° C. for one week, with declining quality or up to two weeks with the addition of gentamycin at a concentration of lmg/mL sperm solution.

Females were weighed and gently placed in labeled 32 mm mesh bags. The spawning bags were then placed in a flow through holding tank so that the fish was fully submerged, ensuring that water quality was ideal with dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L. A 14-gauge implanter was loaded with 100 μg/kg body weight of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) implant. The needle was then inserted at a 45-degree angle ventrally adjacent to the pelvic fin and the implant was inserted. The ovulation time was predicted based on the degree-hours according to Phelps et al. (2007). Water temperature ranged from 26-28° C. Females were checked 36 hours after LHRHa injection and every four hours after that until ovulation. Once a female began ovulating, indicated by eggs visible on the bag, she was carefully transferred into a tank with 100 mg/L buffered tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) with equal parts sodium bicarbonate until completely anesthetized. Prior to this time, a thin layer of vegetable shortening, Crisco, was used to coat several 20 cm diameter metal egg collection pans. The fish was then dipped in fresh water to wash off the MS-222 and gently dried with a towel. A thick layer of vegetable shortening was applied around the urogenital opening, including the pelvic fins to prevent sticking of the eggs during stripping. The female was hand stripped into the greased pan by gently applying pressure on the abdomen from the anterior end of the abdomen posteriorly towards the vent. Eggs would usually flow freely, well rounded and golden in color, with minimal blood. The stripping ensured that the eggs could not contact freshwater, which can activate the eggs. Eggs were then covered with another spawning pan to maintain moisture and transported to the molecular laboratory.

Approximately 200-300 eggs were transferred to a greased pan for fertilization. Approximately 3 mL of sperm solution was added to the eggs and mixed gently with fingertips. Fresh water was added to barely cover the eggs in order to activate the sperm and eggs and the water was swirled to form a single layer and prevent sticking. After two minutes, the eggs should be fertilized, and three more cm of water was added to the eggs and the eggs were left to harden for 15 minutes.

While the embryos were hardening, 5-10 μl of the Cas9/sgRNA/phenol red mixture was loaded into 1.0 mm OD borosilicate glass capillary microinjection needles using a microloader. The tips of the needles were opened by breaking the end with a scalpel. The needle was then inserted into the micropipette holder to its deepest range and tightened, ensuring a tight seal. The compressed air cylinder was opened, and pressure was adjusted to 7000 kPa and 0.824 m³/hr using the pressure regulator. The injection volume was adjusted to 50 nl by manipulating the pressure, the length of injection and the needle diameter. Injection volume was measured by injecting a drop of mineral oil on a hemocytometer.

After 15 minutes 100-200 embryos were transferred in a single layer to a greased 100 mm petri dish and covered with Holtfreter's solution (Table 2). The petri dish was placed on the stage of the microscope. In one smooth motion, the needle was lowered until it pierced the chorion and yolk, and the pedal of the microinjector was depressed, delivering the CRISPR solution, and withdrawing slowly. For best results, the solution was injected as close to the blastodisc as possible. When the blastodisc was not visible, the solution was spread throughout the embryo by depressing the pedal while simultaneously withdrawing the needle smoothly. To reduce mosaicism, embryos were injected between 15 min and 90 min post-fertilization, while they remained in the one cell stage. Injection controls were injected with 50 nl of phenol red, while non-inject controls were not injected.

Embryos were placed in four-liter tubs of Holtfreter's solution (Table 2) with 10 mg/L doxycycline kept at 27° C. with continuous aeration. The solution was changed, and dead embryos were removed daily. After about 5 days, or when the embryos were moving rapidly within the egg membrane and close to hatch, doxycycline treatment was discontinued. At 20 dph fry were moved to aquaria in recirculating systems until large enough to be PIT (Passive Integrated Transponders) tagged and moved to earthen ponds.

The primer set EX1-F, EX1-R (Table 1) was designed using Primer3plus to encapsulate all possible mutation sites (FIGS. 1A-1H). The Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) was used with 500 ng of genomic DNA. A Bio-Rad T100 Thermal Cycler was used to run PCR with an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 34 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 60° C. for 40 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 40 sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The PCR product was confirmed on a 1% TAE Tris base, acetic acid and EDTA agarose gel. The PCR product from the treatment fish was mixed with PCR product from a wild type control of the same family at a 1:1 ratio. The combined product was then hybridized in a BioRad Thermocycler using an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 85° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 75° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 65° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 55° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 45° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 35° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 25° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec.

The Surveyor® mutation detection kit (Integrated DNA Technologies) was used to detect mutations. Hybridized products were mixed with Nuclease S, Enhancer S, MgCl2 and Reaction Buffer (2) according to kit instructions and incubated at 42° C. for one hour. The digested products were separated on a 1.5 percent TBE (Tris borate EDTA) agarose gel and compared with that of control samples.

To confirm and identify the mutations, positive samples were sequenced using the TA cloning method. The largest individuals from each treatment that repeatedly were confirmed as mutants using Surveyor Analysis were sequenced. First, genomic DNA from three mutants per treatment was amplified with PCR using Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) using the above protocol. The PCR product was verified using a 1 percent TAE agarose gel and cloned into the TOPO® TA Cloning® Kit (Invitrogen) with 20 clones per sample and sent to MCLabs (320 Harbor Way, South San Francisco, Calif. 94080) for sequencing. The resulting sequences were interpreted using the MAFFT sequence alignment tool.

To test for mosaicism and relative gene expression in different tissues, three fish from each treatment group were sacrificed at 200 days post hatch (dph) and muscle, spleen, heart, liver, brain and gonad samples were collected in 1.5mL tubes and immediately submerged in liquid nitrogen. All samples were stored at −80° C. until RNA extraction. Samples were ground up using a mortar and pestle in the presence of liquid nitrogen. RNA was extracted using TRIzol reagent following the manufactures protocol. The quality and concentration of each sample was tested using gel electrophoresis and NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific). All samples had an A260/280 ratio above 1.8 and were diluted to 500 ng/μl.

All RNAs were reverse-transcribed to complimentary DNA (cDNA) using the iScript Synthesis Kit (Thermo Scientific). Each reaction had a total volume of 10.0 μl, comprised of 4.0 μl iScript reaction mix, 1.0 μl iScript reverse transcriptase, 500 ng RNA template and water to reach a total value of 10.0 μl. The solution was then brought to 25° C. for 5 min, 42° C. for 30 min, and 85° C. and 5 min using a Bio-Rad T100 Thermal Cycler.

Quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed on a Bio-Rad C1000 Thermal Cycler using SsoFast EvaGreen supermix kit (Thermo Scientific) following the manufacturer's protocol. All reactions were performed in a 10.0 μl total reaction volume comprised of 1.0 μl of each primer (5 μ mol/l, 5.0 μl SsoFast EvaGreen supermix, 2.0 μl RNase/DNase-free water and 1.0 μl 200 ng/μl cDNA. qRT-PCR cycling was carried out with initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 40 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 5 sec and fluorescence measurement at 57° C. for 5 sec, followed by 65° C. for 5 sec and 95° C. with a ramp speed of −0.1° C./sec to calculate the melting curve.

The mRNA levels of each sample were then normalized to the levels of Ohpf PGC marker-gene expression for the control or to the control sample for the same time point for knockdown effect measurement. Ribosome 18S mRNA was used as the reference gene. Crossing-point (Ct) values were then exported into an Excel spreadsheet from the Bio-Rad CRX Manager program. The relative expression ratio of a target gene to the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was analyzed for significance using a randomization test in the REST software (http://rest.gene-quantification.info/), assuming 100% quantification efficiency.

TABLE 2 Name, type of material, company, catalog number (if applicable) of materials and equipment used in microinjection protocol for CRISPR/Cas9 in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Name of Material/ Catalog Equipment Type Company Number Comments/Description Reproboost ® Hormone Center of Marine Biotechnology Luteinizing hormone releasing implant hormone analog (LHRHa) for artificial spawning TRICAINE-S Anesthesia Western Chemical. Inc. For sedation of brood stock fish during hormone injection and egg stripping. Phenol red Reagent Sigma-Aldrich P0290 0.5%, sterile filtered Stereo microscope Equipment Olympus 213709 For visualizing the eggs during microinjection Microinjector Equipment ASI-Applied Model MPPI-3 For the delivery of the injection Scientific material into the embryos Instrumentation Micromanipulator Equipment ASI-Applied Model MM33 For holding and controlling the Scientific movement of the injection Instrumentation needle. Eppendorf Microloader Tool Eppendorf 5242956.003 For loading injection solution into microinjection needles. Vertical needle puller Equipment David Kopf Model 720 For pulling microinjection Instruments needles Borosilicate glass Tool Fisher Scientific 1 mm outer diameter (OD), for capillaries making microinjection needles. Petri dish Tool VWR 25384-302 For holding the embryos during the microinjection. Crisco ® Vegetable The J.M. Smucker Company For coating spawning pans and shortening petri dishes. Holtfreter's solution Reagent Lab Made 59 mM NaCl, 0.67 mM KCl, 2.4 mM NaHCO3, 0.76 mM CaCl2, 1.67 mM MgSO4 (Armstrong et al., 1989) to incubate the microinjected embryos till hatch. Doxycycline hyclate Antibiotic Letco Medical 690904 Added to Holtfreter's solution USP (monohydrate) to 10 ppm to prevent bacterial infections.

2.3. Mutation Analysis

Pelvic fin-clip samples (10-20mg) were collected in sterile 1.5mL Eppendorf tubes and kept in a −80° C. freezer until DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using proteinase K digestion and ethanol precipitation using the following protocol: fin clips were digested in 600 μl of cell lysis buffer (100mM NaCl, 10mM Tris, 25mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) and 2.5 μl of proteinase K in a 55° C. hot water bath for 4-8 hours, with occasional vortexing. Protein was precipitated by adding 200 μl of protein precipitation solution (Qiagen, 19300 Germantown Road Germantown, Md. 20874), vortexed, stored on ice for 12 minutes and centrifuged for 8 minutes at 15,000 rcf. The supernatant containing DNA was then precipitated with isopropanol followed by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 15,000 rcf and finally washed twice with 75% ethanol by inverting gently 5-times before being dissolved in dH₂O. DNA concentration and purity was measured using a NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and concentration was adjusted to 500 ng/μl.

2.4. Generation of F1 Progeny

Two and three-year old P1 myostatin gene edited channel catfish with good secondary sexual characteristics were chosen as brood stock. In 2019, only two Kansas strain gene edited males were sexually mature, and each was paired with a wildtype Kansas female in 70-liter glass aquaria. Two pairs of wildtype Kansas strain channel catfish from the same family were paired in identical conditions as controls. The system received flow-through water from a source pond between 26-28° C. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 5 mg/L using an air stone diffuser. Both males and females were injected with 100 μg liquid LHRHa/kg BW adjacent to the pelvic fin. Starting 24 hours after injection, the bottom of the aquaria were checked every two hours for courtship behavior and egg masses. Egg masses were weighed and transferred to 4 L bins of Holtzfreter's solution and maintained according to the protocol in 2.2.

2.5. Grow Out and Growth Sampling

One-hundred fry per genetic type were stocked into 3-replicate 50 L aquaria in recirculating systems for growth experiments. Fish in each aquarium were fed ad-libitum with Aquamax powdered and pelleted fish diets and catfish diets.

Pellet feed size was adjusted to a maximum of ¼ the size of the mouth as the fish grew. Fry were fed Purina® AquaMax® powdered starter feed until they were large enough to eat Purina® AquaMax® 100. Both feeds contained 50% protein. All fish were fed every day to satiation. Mutants and controls generated in 2017 were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post-hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha. Fish were fed daily to satiation. P1 mutants and controls generated in 2018 were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit tagged and transferred to three 200 L communal recirculating system (RAS) tanks. The experimental fish were kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrid catfish, at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. F 1 mutants and controls generated in 2018 were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. P1 mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 200 L communal flow through tank with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. F 1 mutants and controls generated in 2019 were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Fifteen fish per genetic type remained in the aquaria in the recirculating system. The fish were sampled at 6-month intervals in both aquaria and ponds. During these growth trials any mortality due to disease was identified by family, genotype and sex, and the pathogen identified.

2.6. Enteric Septicemia of Catfish (ESC) Challenge

The E. ictaluri isolate S97-773 was provided by the USDA-ARS, Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit, Auburn, Ala. and stored as a glycerinated stock at −80° C. until thawed for use. The stock was inoculated in 50 mL brain heart infusion (BHI) broth with 131 mg/L deferoxamine (DFO) and grown on a stir plate at 28° C. for 24-48 hours, depending on growth. Cultures were expanded into 150 L and then 2 L BHI and DFO broth, by adding 20 mL and 100 mL suspensions respectively, and grown under the same conditions for about 24 hours each expansion until the cell density reached 1×10⁸ cells/mL based on the absorbance value read at 600 nm (OD₆₀₀). The average number of colony forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) of bacterial cells used to challenge the fish was determined using standard plate counts run in triplicate. Confirmation of E. ictaluri was determined using an analytical profile index (API) 20E test (BioMérieux).

A total of 104 F1 heterozygous MSTN mutant channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, in two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and 24 control channel catfish from two families were challenged with E. ictaluri. All water was treated and discharged into a septic system to eliminate all pathogens. Fish were acclimated in dechlorinated tap water at 27° C. for 48 h prior to experiment. Each family was divided evenly into four 365 L tanks (height, width and length were 57 cm, 72 cm and 3 m, respectively) with continuous aeration and individual sand bio-filters. Three tanks were used as identical treatment tanks (infected) and one as control. Throughout the experiment, water temperature was 28.0±0.5° C., pH was 7.0±0.2, dissolved oxygen was 6.70±0.40 mg/L, nitrite was <0.50 mg/L, alkalinity was 80 mg/L and ammonia concentration was <0.50 mg/L.

Before starting the challenge, water was lowered in each tank to 100 L and biofilters were turned off. One liter of E. ictaluri bacterial suspension containing approximately 1.0×10⁸ cells/mL was added to each treatment tank resulting in a final concentration of ˜1.0×10⁶ cells/mL. The control tank received 1 L of Tryptic soy broth (TSB) only. Fish were immersed statically for one hour with aeration. After one hour, water was added to a final volume of 250 L and the biofilters were turned on.

Fish were observed every 12 hours and dead or moribund fish were removed and sampled. Moribund fish were necropsied to confirm the cause of death. Kidney and liver samples were taken from fish to confirm E. ictaluri as the causative agent of mortality. Moribund fish were euthanized with 300 ppm buffered MS-222 according to IACUC protocols. Dissolved oxygen and temperature were measured twice daily. Fish were not fed the day before or the day of the challenge but were fed ad libitum the day following infection and for the remainder of the experiment. Survivors and mortalities were genotyped as needed. The challenge was continued for one week until 100% mortality. Outgoing water was detoxified with 20 ppm Clorox.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

To calculate differences in body weight between MSTN mutants and controls, a paired t-test was performed using R programming language (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria). To calculate differences in body weight between multiple gRNAs, NIC and IC, as well as between F1 MSTN families and CNTRL families a one-way ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparisons test were performed using R programming language. In cases where different treatments were kept in separate aquaria at varying densities, a regression based on density was calculated, and weights were adjusted accordingly before running the statistical analysis. Differences in mutation rate were calculated with logistic regression using R programming language. To calculate differences in mortality rate at specific time points and at the end of the ESC challenge, mean hours to death (MHD) and cumulative percent mortality (CPM) were analyzed using paired t-test, one-way ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparisons test on R programming language. To calculate the rate of disease progress, area under the mortality progress curve (AUMPC) was used in conjunction with ANOVA. This measurement was adapted from the index of area under wilt progress curve (AUWPC) commonly used in crop research to evaluate quantitative disease resistance of different cultivars and measure disease severity (Jeger and Viljanen-Rollinson, 2001). In this study, AUMPC was calculated using the following formula (Formula 1):

AUMPC=Σ_(i=1) ^(n−1)[(y_(i)+y_(i+1))/2] (t_(i+1)−t_(i))   (Formula 1)

where yi is the number of moribund fish and dead fish at time ti and n is the total number of time points. AUMPC index of each family at each time point was calculated with cumulative mortality data. ANOVA was used to compare AUMPC indices between treatments at each time point.

3. Results 3.1. Growth

A total of 8 MSTN mutant P1 channel catfish and 31 control channel catfish generated in 2017 were PIT tagged and transferred into a 0.04-ha earthen pond at 1-year post hatch (mean body weight for MSTN and CNTRL were 58.26 g and 46.90 g, respectively). At 12-months post hatch, MSTN mutants had an observed mean 25% and 11.36 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.328, r²=0.029) (Table 3). At 18-months post hatch and just reaching the lower end of market size, MSTN mutants had an observed mean 44% and 182.41 g larger than controls (p=0.036, r²=0.1203) (FIGS. 1A-1H). At 24-months post hatch, the fish were at standard market size, and MSTN mutants had an observed mean 27% and 249.17 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.096, r²=0.1545). At 31-months post hatch, the observed mean for MSTN mutants was 25% and 358.00 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.191, r²=0.054). At 36-months post hatch, the fish were near oversize for processor acceptability, and MSTN mutants had an observed mean 10% and 176.00 g larger than controls (p=0.043, r²=0.058).

A total of 10 MSTN mutant P1 channel catfish and 27 control channel catfish were generated in 2018. At 6-months post hatch, the observed mean of MSTN mutants was 5% and 0.47 g smaller than controls, but not significantly (p=0.675, r²=0.005) (Table 4). At 18 months post hatch, MSTN mutants were 93.5% and 110.18 g larger than controls (p=3.34e-6, r²=0.447) (FIG. 2). At 30-months post hatch, MSTN mutants were 177% and 629.38 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.639, r²=0.0002).

A total of 104 MSTN mutant P1 channel catfish and 22 control channel catfish were generated in 2019. Three different cut sites in exon 1 were targeted with sgRNAs (MSTN-1, MSTN-2, MSTN-3) as well as a mix of all three sgRNA's (MSTN-Mix) a control injected with just phenol red dye (IC) and a non-injected control (NIC). Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 6-months post hatch when they were large enough to be PIT tagged and moved to a 200 L communal recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) tank. They were kept at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. There were differences among treatments at 6-months post hatch (p=0.0036). At 6-months post hatch, the observed mean for Inject-Controls was 10% and 1.33 g smaller than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.655) (Table 5). MSTN-1 mutants were 47% and 6.33 g larger than Non-Inject Controls (p=0.001). MSTN-2 mutants were 31% and 4.15 g larger than Non-Inject Controls (p=0.015). The observed mean for MSTN-3 mutants was 5% and 0.69 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.735). The observed mean for MSTN-Mix mutants was 20% and 2.77 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.128). Overall, at 6-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 30% and 4.03 g larger than controls (p=0.004, r²=0.062).

There were differences in body weight among treatments at 12-months post hatch (p=0.0003). At 12-months post hatch, Inject-Controls were 42% and 44.94 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.095) (Table 5). Observed mean of MSTN-1 mutants was 8% and 9.83 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.563). MSTN-2 mutants were 38% and 41.25 g larger than Non-Inject Controls (p=0.007). MSTN-3 mutants were 14% and 15.54 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.397). Observed mean of MSTN-Mix mutants was 21% and 19.11 g smaller than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.241). Overall, at 12-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 4% and 5.26 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.693, r²=0.001).

There were no significant differences in body weight between treatments at 18-months post hatch (p=0.468) (Table 5). At 18-months post hatch, Inject-Controls were 24% and 104.98 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.349) (FIG. 3). MSTN-1 mutants were 7% and 31.01 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.591). MSTN-2 mutants were 14% and 60.04 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.255). MSTN-3 mutants were 0.65 g larger than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.992). MSTN-Mix mutants were 6% and 25.28 g smaller than Non-Inject Controls, but not significantly (p=0.651). Overall, at 18-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 1% and 6.66 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.880, r²=0.0002).

A total of 71 control female x MSTN male heterozygous MSTN mutant F1 channel catfish in two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and 60 control channel catfish in two families (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were generated in 2019. Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 6-months post hatch (p=5.35e-14). At 6-months post hatch, CNTRL-B was 70% and 6.22 g smaller than CNTRL-A (p=3.32e-5) (Table 6). MSTN-A mutants were 36% and 5.46 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=8.34e-5). MSTN-B mutants were 25% and 3.77 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=0.010). Overall, at 6-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 65% and 7.86 g larger than controls (p=9.18e-12, r²=0.304).

Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 9-months post hatch (p=5.36e-14). At 9-months post hatch, CNTRL-B was 72% and 7.23 g smaller than CNTRL-A (p=6.99e-5) (Table 6). MSTN-A mutants were 34% and 6.88 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=4.31e-5). MSTN-B mutants were 39% and 5.80 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=0.001). Overall, at 9-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 72% and 9.99 g larger than controls (p=1.11e-12, r²=0.330).

Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 12-months post hatch (p<2e-16). At 12-months post hatch, CNTRL-B was 92% and 22.33 g smaller than CNTRL-A (p=0.011) (Table 6; FIG. 5). MSTN-A mutants were 142% and 66.36 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=8.34e-13). MSTN-B mutants were 142% and 66.45 g larger than CNTRL-A (p=3.45e-12). Overall, at 12-months post hatch MSTN mutants were 218% and 77.56 g larger than controls (p<2.2e-16, r²=0.565).

TABLE 3 12 months 18 months 24 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV Control 29 46.90 23.45 50.01 29 417.59 217.48 52.08 16 917.50 212.78 23.19 MSTN 8 58.26 24.71 42.42 8 600.00 169.79 28.30 3 1166.67 299.56 25.68 p-value 0.3280 0.0360 0.1545 31 months 36 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV Control 15 1412.00 368.90 26.13 8 1820.00 305.75 16.80 MSTN 5 1770.00 177.20 10.01 5 1996.00 473.79 23.74 p-value 0.1914 0.043

Table 3 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout mutant and control channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, at 12-months, 18-months, 24-months, 31-months and 36-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. Paired t-test was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05).

TABLE 4 Mean Weight (grams) 6 months 18 months 30 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV Control 27 9.07 2.34 25.74 31 117.82 36.61 31.07 10 356.45 198.78 55.8 MSTN 10 8.6 4.46 51.91 8 228 89.02 39.05 6 985.83 310.51 31.5 p-value 0.675 3.34E−06 6.39E−01

Table 4 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout mutant and control channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2018, at 6-months, 18-months and 30-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 200 L communal flow through tank with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. Paired t-test was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05).

TABLE 5 Mean Weight (grams) 6 months 12 months 18 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV sgRNA NIC 17 13.529 3.75 28 17 108.06 36.1 33 17 435.35 140 32 IC 5 12.2 2.28 19 5 153 46.5 30 3 540.33 249 46 MSTN-1 22 *19.864 8.46 43 22 117.89 50.2 43 22 466.36 207 44 MSTN-2 41 *17.683 6.34 36 41 *149.3 68.1 46 36 495.39 205 41 MSTN-3 16 14.219 3.72 26 16 123.59 52 42 14 436 152 35 MSTN- 25 16.296 4.73 29 25 88.944 32.4 36 25 410.08 135 33 Mix Genotype Control 22 13.227 3.47 26 22 118.27 42.1 36 20 451.1 156 35 MSTN 104 *17.259 6.35 37 104 123.53 59.1 48 97 457.76 183 40

Table 5 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N) standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of P1 myostatin (MSTN) knockout mutant and control channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2019, at 6-months, 12-months and-18 months post hatch. Three different cut sites in exon 1 were targeted with sgRNAs (MSTN-1, MSTN-2, MSTN-3) as well as a mix of all three sgRNA's (MSTN-Mix) a control injected with just phenol red dye (IC) and a non-injected control (NIC). Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 200 L communal flow through tank with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids at a density of 2 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. ANOVA was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05) indicated by asterisk.

TABLE 6 Mean Weight (grams) 6 months 9 months 12 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV Family MSTN-A 41 *20.598 7.02 34 41 *24.11 8.1 34 36 *113.06 41.1 36.3 MSTN-B 30 *18.9 6.85 36 29 *23.034 8.63 37 29 *113.15 36.9 32.6 CNTRL-A 30 15.133 4.34 29 30 17.233 5.46 32 30 46.7 35.5 76 CNTRL-B 30 8.9167 1.79 20 29 10 2.07 21 30 24.367 9.01 37 Treatment MSTN 71 *19.88 6.95 35 70 *23.664 8.28 35 65 *113.1 38.9 34.4 CNTRL 60 12.025 4.55 38 59 13.678 5.5 40 60 35.533 28 78.9

Table 6 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of F1 heterozygous myostatin (MSTN) knockout mutants and control channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, at 6-months, 9-months and 12-months post hatch. Two families of MSTN F 1 progeny (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and two families of wild-type (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were generated. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. ANOVA was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05) indicated by asterisk.

3.2. Mutation Analysis

A total of 209 fish survived microinjection of CRISPR/Cas9 and sgRNA targeting exon 1 of the MSTN gene over 3 years. The overall the mutation rate of the survivors was 58% (122/209) (Table 7). The highest mutation rate resulted from the MSTN-2 gRNA, although the difference was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Of the 122 P1 mutants 64% were homozygous/bi-allelic and 36% were heterozygous. MSTN-2 and MSTN-Mix led to higher levels of homozygosity/bi-allelism than other target sites (MSTN-2 p=0.014; MSTN-Mix 0.004). The average mutation rate for all F1 MSTN channel catfish was 88% (71/81). All F1 MSTN channel catfish were heterozygous.

Gel electrophoresis indicated mutations in each target site in both P1 and F1 generations (FIG. 6). Multiple bands in the image corresponded to expected cut sites. In most instances, 3 bands were associated with mutations while 1 band indicated a wild-type sequence, although some mutations were indicated by 5 bands, potentially indicating multiple cuts. Each positive result was confirmed with a second gel.

Sequence results confirmed mutations in each of the target sites indicated by gel electrophoresis. Each gRNA tested generated mutations in exon 1 in the MSTN gene (FIG. 8). All mutations occurred outside of the target sites and each gRNA and caused deletions. There were no insertions revealed. The MSTN mutation was inherited in the offspring (F1 MSTN-B). The MSTN-Mix treatment generated the same mutation as the MSTN-3 gRNA, indicating that only one gRNA bound to the Cas9 protein. Guide RNAs MSTN-2 caused a large deletion (2181 bp) outside of the target site.

TABLE 7 Homozygosity/ Year Genotype Mutation Rate Bi-allelism 2017 P1 MSTN Channel 31% (8/26) 63% (5/8) 2018 P1 MSTN Channel 100% (10/10) 30% (3/10) 2019 P1 MSTN-1 Channel 59% (22/37) 41% (9/22) 2019 P1 MSTN-2 Channel 66% (41/62) 73% (30/41) 2019 P1 MSTN-3 Channel 46% (16/35) 68% (11/16) 2019 P1 MSTN-Mix Channel 64% (25/39) 84% (21/25) 2019 F1 CNTRL × MSTN-A (ch) 91% (41/45) 0% (0/41) 2019 F1 CNTRL × MSTN-B (ch) 83% (30/36) 0% (0/36)

Table 7 shows the mutation rate and zygosity of all myostatin (MSTN) gene edited channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, 2018 and 2019. P1 indicates fish gene edited through microinjection using CRISPR/Cas9. MSTN-1, MSTN-2 and MSTN-3 indicate gRNA's targeting different sites on exon 1 of the MSTN gene, while MSTN-Mix was an equal combination of all three sgRNA's. Approximately 50 nl of solution, composed of 300-350 ng/μl Cas9 protein and 200 ng/μl sgRNA, was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. F 1 indicates the offspring of control channel catfish female x homozygous/bi-allelic MSTN mutant channel catfish male. Two families of F1 channel catfish (control (CNTRL)xMSTN-A and CNTRLxMSTN-B) were generated in 2019 from mutants spawned in 2017.

3.4. Relative Gene Expression

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN between treatments (p=5.02e-3) (FIG. 7). Mean expression level of MSTN was 3.63 times higher in controls than in MSTN-A (p=5.36e-3) Mean expression level of MSTN was 2.41 times higher in controls than in MSTN-B (p=0.036). Mean expression level of MSTN was 2.90 times higher in controls than in combined MSTN F 1 progeny (p=0.009). No significant differences existed in expression levels of MSTN between tissues of wild-type fish (p=0.436). However, no one treatment had universally greater reduction in expression across all tissues, indicating MSTN expression is complex and dynamic.

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in muscle tissue between treatments (p=1.91e-4) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-A, MSTN-B and MSTN-2. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 3.85 times higher in controls than in MSTN-A (p=3.37e-3). Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 3.66 times higher in controls than in MSTN-B (p=2.26e-3). Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 6.37 times higher in controls than in MSTN-2 (p=1.35e-4).

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in spleen tissue between treatments (p=9.97e-6) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-A and MSTN-B while upregulation occurred in MSTN-2. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 2.32 times higher in controls than in MSTN-A (p=3.17e-3). Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 4.99 times higher in controls than in MSTN-B (p=1.64e-5).

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in heart tissue between treatments (p=3.68e-6) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-A, MSTN-B and MSTN-2. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 9.76 times higher in controls than in MSTN-A (p=1.8e-6). Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 4.53 times higher in controls than in MSTN-B (p=1.21e-3). Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 5.80 times higher in controls than in MSTN-2 (p=2.91e-4).

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in liver tissue between treatments (p=6.52e-5) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-A and MSTN-2 and upregulation occurred in MSTN-B. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 2.25 times higher in control than in MSTN-A (p=1.30e-3).

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in brain tissue between treatments (p=1.07e-3) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-B and MSTN-2. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 2.61 times higher in controls than in MSTN-B (p=7.32e-4).

Significant differences existed between overall expression levels of MSTN in gonad tissue between treatments (p=0.030) (FIG. 7). Downregulation occurred in MSTN-A and MSTN-B, while upregulation occurred in MSTN-2. Mean expression level of MSTN in brain tissue was 8.18 times higher in MSTN-2 than in MSTN-A (p=0.028).

3.5. Enteric Septicemia of Catfish (ESC) Challenge

All families reached 100% mortality within 144-hours after inoculation with Edwardsiella ictaluri. Mortality did not begin until 60-hours after inoculation for any family (FIG. 9). MSTN-A, CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B all surpassed 50% mortality at 56-hours after inoculation, while MSTN-B reached 50% mortality at 96-hours. Control family 1 (CNTRL-B) was the fastest to reach 100% mortality, reaching it at 108-hours while MSTN-B consistently had the slowest mortality rate throughout the entire challenge, reaching 100% mortality at 144-hours. There was a significant difference in mean hours to death (MHD) post-challenge between families (p=0.032). MSTN-B had significantly higher MHD compared to CNTRL-B (p=0.030). There were no significant differences in cumulative percent mortality (CPM) between families at any time point (p>0.05) (Table 8). The largest difference in CPM between families was at 72 hours (p=0.204). Additionally, when both MSTN families were combined and both CNTRL families were combined, there was no significant differences in CPM between genotypes at any time point (p>0.05) (Table 8). The AUMPC indices over time are illustrated in FIG. 10. There was no significant difference in the total AUMPC between different families (p=0.241). The p-values of comparison of AUMPC at each time point after first mortality are 0.633, 0.383, 0.282, 0.334, 0.223, 0.306, 0.375, 0.441 at 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, 132, 144-hours post challenge respectively. Thus, no significant difference was found among the AUMPC indices at any time point (P>0.05).

TABLE 8 Mean Cumulative Percent Mortality (CPM) 60 hours 72 hours 84 hours 96 hours 108 hours 120 hours 132 hours CNTRL-A 33.33% 66.67% 66.67%   75% 91.67% 91.67% 100% (4/12)  (8/12)  (8/12)  (8/12) (11/12) (11/12) (12/12) CNTRL_B 41.67% 66.67% 66.67% 83.33%   100%   100% 100% (5/15)  (8/12)  (8/12) (10/12) (12/12) (12/12) (12/12) MSTN-A 35.84% 66.23% 66.23% 68.08% 92.48% 98.04% 100% (19/53)  (35/53) (35/53) (36/53) (49/53) (52/53) (53/53) MSTN-B 19.61% 39.22% 45.1%  56.86% 82.38%  90.2% 94.12%   (10/51)  (20/51) (23/51) (29/51) (42/51) (46/51) (48/51) CNTRL 37.5%  66.67% 66.67%   75% 95.83% 95.83% 100% (9/24) (16/24) (16/24) (18/24) (23/24) (23/24) (24/24) MSTN 27.79% 53.65% 55.77% 62.50%  87.5% 92.31% 97.12%   (29/104)  (56/104)  (58/104)  (65/104)  (91/104)  (96/104) (101/104) p-value  0.4266  0.2222  0.3052 0.09745 0.1572 0.7363 0.221

Table 8 shows the mean cumulative percent mortality (CPM) between F1 myostatin (MSTN) mutant channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and wild-type (CNTRL) channel catfish challenged with Edwardsiellla ictaluri, causative agent for enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC). A total of 104 F1 heterozygous MSTN mutant channel catfish in two families (MSTN-A and MSTN-B) and 24 control channel catfish in two families (CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B) were challenged and cumulative percent mortality data was analyzed between the combined MSTN families and CNTRL families using a two sample t-test (a priori=0.05). Fish were naïve and 7-months old, averaging 9.25±2.55 g at the start of the challenge. Fish were checked twice per day for 6 days until each family reached 100% mortality. ANOVA was used to determine significant differences in Family CPM. No significant differences were found between families (p>0.05). Paired t-test was used to determine significant differences in treatment CPM.

3.6 Hatching Rate and Survival of MSTN Gene Edited Channel Catfish

Hatching Rate and Survival of MSTN gene edited channel catfish to 30 days post hatch (dph) and 6 months post hatch (mph) was evaluated.

TABLE 20 Year Genotype Hatching Rate 30 dph Survival 6 mph Survival Mutation Rate Homozygosity 2017 P1 MSTN Channel 26% (64/200) 27% (17/64) 13% (8/64) 31% (8/26) 63% (5/8) 2017 Non-Injected Control 62% (62/100) 56% (35/62) 47% (29/62) N/A N/A 2018 P1 MSTN Channel 10% (28/200) 57% (16/28) 36% (10/28) 100% (10/10) 30% (3/10) 2018 Non-Injected Control 55% (55/100) 67% (37/55) 49% (27/55) N/A N/A 2019 P1 MSTN-1 Channel 37% (88/400) 69% (52/88) 42% (37/88) 59% (22/37) 41% (9/22) 2019 P1 MSTN-2 Channel 62% (121/400) 72% (87/121) 51% (62/121) 66% (41/62) 73% (30/41) 2019 P1 MSTN-3 Channel 35% (69/400) 64% (44/69) 51% (35/69) 46% (16/35) 68% (11/16) 2019 P1 MSTN-Mix Channel 39% (65/400) 75% (49/65) 60% (39/65) 64% (25/39) 84% (21/25) 2019 Injected Control 17% (17/100) 71% (12/17) 29% (5/17) N/A N/A 2019 Non-Injected Control 51% (51/100) 57% (29/51) 33% (17/51) N/A N/A 2019 F1 CNTRL × MSTN-A (ch) N/A N/A N/A 91% (41/45) 0% (0/41) 2019 F1 CNTRL × MSTN-B (ch) N/A N/A N/A 83% (30/36) 0% (0/36)

Table 20 shows hatching rate and survival to 30 dph and 6 months post hatch mph of microinjected P1 myostatin (MSTN) gene-edited channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and mutation rate and zygosity of all MSTN channel catfish, generated in 2017, 2018, and 2019. P1 indicates fish that were gene-edited through microinjection using CRISPR/Cas9. MSTN-1, MSTN-2, and MSTN-3 indicate gRNA's targeting different sites on exon 1 of the MSTN gene, while MSTN-Mix included an equal combination of all three sgRNA's. Approximately 50 nL of solution, composed of 300-350 Cas9 protein and 200 ng/μL sgRNA, was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. F1 indicates the offspring of control channel catfish female x homozygous/bi-allelic MSTN mutant channel catfish male. Two families of F 1 channel catfish [control (CNTRL) x MSTN-A and CNTRL x MSTN-B] were generated in 2019 from mutants spawned in 2017. Hatching rate and survival to 30 dph and 6 mph were not calculated for F1 catfish due to different culture methods.

4. Discussion

In this Example, the effects of microinjection of three sgRNAs targeting exon 1 of the channel catfish myostatin gene in conjunction with Cas9 protein on mutation rate, expression level, growth and disease resistance were investigated. Efficient mutagenesis was achieved as demonstrated by PCR, Surveyor assay and DNA sequencing. The highest mutation rate of 66% was achieved by MSTN-2 gRNA. However, the highest rate of homozygosity/bi-allelism, 84%, was achieved by combining all three gRNAs (MSTN-Mix), indicating that combining multiple successful gRNAs can better cleave both DNA strands. An F1 generation was successfully produced. P1 and F1 mutants both showed enhanced growth, 10-400%. MSTN gene editing resulted in decreased MSTN gene expression. The resistance of the mutants to the bacterial pathogen, E. ictaluri, was slightly increased in one MSTN family.

A total of 209 fish survived microinjection over 3 years with an average mutation rate of 58%. Mutation rate showed high variability between years with the lowest rate of 31% in 2017 and highest rate of 100% in 2018. These results are more variable than a previous study where mutation rates of 88-100% were achieved using CRISPR/Cas9 to target MSTN in channel catfish (Khalil et al., 2017). Mutation rates of 60-100 percent using CRISPR/Cas9 are typical for channel catfish for various genes studied at our facility (Qin 2015; Khalil et al., 2017; Elaswad et al., 2018; Qin, 2019). Mutation rates in other teleosts using CRISPR/Cas9 vary considerably between studies, fluctuating between from 2% to 100% (Jao et al., 2013; Chakrapani et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2018). The variability in this study was likely due to a combination of variability of egg quality, period during the spawning season, timing after ovulation and/or human error. Future experiments should test family and strain effects on mutation rate.

MSTN F1 mutants were generated by individually mating two pairs of control females with MSTN mutant males. The offspring of both families inherited the mutation at a rate of 88%, indicating a very low level of mosaicism in the parent generation. As the dam was the control, all mutant offspring were heterozygous. Germline transmission rates range considerably among other studies. Varshney et al. (2015) attained a 53% mutation rate from 162 loci targeting 83 genes in zebrafish and had an average germline transmission rate of 28%. Similar to the current study, mutated founder individuals were mated with wild type fish. Zebrafish progeny generated from mating founders with mutations in the C9t2 and C9t3 genes had germline transmission rates of 43% and 20% respectively (Hruscha et al., 2013). Due to mosaicism, germline transmission of CRISPR/Cas9 induced mutations are not necessarily inherited with Mendelian distributions.

Growth was generally higher in MSTN mutants when compared to controls at all life stages and in both pond and tank environments. At the small fingerling stage (10-20 g), P1 MSTN mutants were 30% larger than controls on average. At the stocker stage (100-200 g), P1 MSTN mutants were 88% larger than controls on average and P1 MSTN mutants reached market size 27% faster than controls. Heterozygous F1 mutants were 218% larger than controls on average at 100 g. These increases in body weight are considerably higher than those in previous studies of teleost fish including zebrafish, medaka, red sea bream, spotted halibut, common carp and olive flounder, where MSTN mutants were 51% larger on average than wild-type and ranged from an 11% decrease to 88% increase in body weight (Kim et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2019; Zong et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018; Chiang et al., 2016; Khalil et al., 2017; Yeh et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2016; Chisada et al., 2011; Kishimoto et al., 2018; Li et al., 2012).

Growth improvement through MSTN knockout in the current study was superior to typical results from selection, crossbreeding and hybridization in channel catfish. Selection typically yields increases of 7-14% per generation (Gjedrem and Thodesen, 2005; Dunham, 2011). Dunham and Smitherman (1983) found that six of nine (67%) channel catfish crossbreeds showed heterosis for body weight, averaging 10.3 percent above both parents, although 50% improvement is possible. Interspecific hybridization can yield substantial increases in body weight, such as in the case of hybrid catfish, which may grow 20% up to 100% faster than either parent depending upon the parent (Dunham et al., 1990; Dunham, 2011). Transgenesis has the potential for much larger gains in body weight than those achieved in this study. By incorporating the Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, growth hormone into an Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, growth rate was increased by 400-600 percent, reducing the grow-out period from three years to 18 months (Elliot, 1998; Entis, 1998). However, growth hormone channel catfish grow 60-80% faster than controls (Abass et al., 2020; Abass et al., 2021). While transgenics can reduce grow-out time and cost, there are ethical and environmental concerns with introducing a foreign gene into an organism (Muir and Howard, 1999). Crispr/Cas9 gene knockout, while artificial in methodology produces an end product that could intrinsically come about through natural mutations.

Natural MSTN mutants are already used in terrestrial agriculture as Belgian Blue and Piedmontese cattle breeds are frequently utilized. However, mutations in fish result in larger phenotypic gains than terrestrial animals, as their mutants average 24% larger than wild-type (Kim et al., 2016; Lv et al., 2016; Crispo et al., 2015; McPherron et al., 1997; Wang et al., 2017). The larger gains in teleost fish are likely explained by the larger proportion of muscle to body weight in fish compared to terrestrial animals (Tlusty et al., 2018) or the indeterminate growth of fish. This faster growth to harvest makes MSTN mutants a potentially and extremely valuable genotype for commercial aquaculture. Future research should evaluate the difference in growth between homozygous and heterozygous F1 MSTN mutants.

The growth of individual MSTN mutants and different MSTN families varied. This is likely due to differences in knockout patterns and subsequent expression levels of MSTN, differences in genetic background coupled with epistatic interaction with other loci or differences in off-target mutations. The variability can be advantageous as combining gene editing with selection for the largest individuals might result in maximum genetic enhancement.

No genotype x environment interactions or age effects were observed. Variation in growth correlated more closely with year class than environment or age. However, only one generation of MSTN mutants reached sexual maturity, and therefore age effects may not be apparent at this time. Normal fish growth slows down after sexual maturity and future studies should evaluate whether MSTN plays a stronger role as the fish continue to grow.

MSTN mutants had reduced overall expression levels of MSTN when compared to controls. Mean expression level of MSTN was 2.90 times higher in controls than in combined MSTN F1 progeny. No one treatment had universally greater reduction in expression across all tissues, and no significant differences existed in expression levels of MSTN between tissues of wild-type fish, indicating MSTN expression is complex and dynamic. Expression was most reduced in muscle, spleen and heart. In muscle, spleen and heart, MSTN expression was reduced 5-fold, 3-fold and 7-fold, respectively. Previous studies indicate that MSTN is predominantly expressed in the brain, muscle and heart tissue (Du et al., 2014; Helterline et al., 2007). Therefore, the greatest reduction in MSTN expression can be expected from the tissues with highest normal expression levels. Due to the importance of optimal brain and heart function for survival, the gross characteristics should be evaluated in future experiments to determine if MSTN mutants have deformities in any organs. However, the MSTN mutants in this study appear normal and healthy, which is further supported and indicated by their rapid growth.

Along with the phenotypic differences and RNA expression levels, DNA sequencing confirmed large mutations in the MSTN gene leading to truncation of the MSTN protein. Deletions were found in each target site, with the MSTN-2 gRNA causing a 2184 bp deletion that knocked out nearly the entire MSTN gene. As only the largest mutants from each treatment were sequenced, more mutants should be sequenced to determine whether such large deletions are common. Future experiments should evaluate whether the type of mutation and MSTN expression levels influence growth.

When challenged for resistance to enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC), MSTN mutants performed equally or better than controls. MSTN-A, CNTRL-A and CNTRL-B all surpassed 50% mortality 56-hours after inoculation, while MSTN-B reached 50% mortality at 96-hours. One of two families, MSTN-B, had higher mean hours to death (MHD) compared to CNTRL-B. Thus, there appears to be a slight increase in the bacterial disease resistance of some MSTN genotypes, although more extensive research is needed. This contradicts results by Chiang et al. (2016), in which MSTN mutant medaka challenged with red spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV) had seemingly compromised immune systems, as indicated by reduced expression levels of interferon-stimulated genes and elevated virus copy numbers, when compared to wild-type medaka. A trade-off between growth and immunity is seen in a variety of animals (Henryon et al., 2002). Additionally, mice with chronic kidney disease and obesity show increased levels of MSTN expression, indicating the gene may play an important immune role (Rahimov and Kunkel, 2013; Zhang et al., 2011).

The non-congruence of the channel catfish with the medaka disease resistance results might be related to channel catfish being unique, having only one copy of the MSTN gene, and channel catfish taking a different evolutionary path. Within diploid teleosts myostatin-b retains its role in muscle development, while myostatin-a relates to immune function (Wang et al., 2018). Channel catfish MSTN is homologous to mstn-b in other diploid teleosts, and therefore may not play a role in immune function (Karim et al., 2017; Kocabas et al., 2002; Gregory et al., 2004). More research must be carried out on other diseases and species to determine the role of channel catfish MSTN on immune function, and how it relates to other teleosts.

The improved growth and potentially enhanced disease resistance indicate that the use of gene edited MSTN channel catfish could be beneficial for commercial farms. Catfish farming and production in the United States peaked in 2003, dramatically declined from 2007-2012 and has been gradually increasing since that time (Hanson and Sites, 2015; Torrans and Ott, 2018; FAO, 2020). Gene editing presents a valuable tool to increase profitability, sustainability and industry growth. There are, however, a number of ethical, logistical and regulatory hurdles for the MSTN mutant channel catfish to become applied commercially in the United States, as FDA currently regulates gene edited animals. The improvement of gene editing technologies, greater understanding of its effects and the commercial success of genetically improved organisms, including Aquabounty's AquaAdvantage salmon make this technology a viable option in the near future. By combining MSTN gene editing with other genetic techniques, such as selection, crossbreeding and hybridization, it is likely possible to achieve even greater growth results, shorten the grow-out period, and select for multiple traits. With an increasing human population and declining natural resources, all solutions should be evaluated to determine the most efficient and sustainable methods of food production.

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Example 2—Growth and Survival of Melanocorti-4 Receptor Gene Edited Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus 1. Introduction

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) is a G protein-coupled receptor within the five-membered melanocortin receptor family (MC1R-MC5R) (Liu et al., 2019). This family of receptors regulate many functions, with MC4R primarily controlling energy homeostasis (Liu et al., 2019). MC4R is expressed in the hypothalamus and is activated by a-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), a neuropeptide derived from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) (Liu et al., 2019) and antagonized by agouti-related peptide (AGRP), responsible for increasing appetite and decreasing metabolism and energy expenditure (Liu et al., 2019). MC4R is located upstream of kisspeptin and downstream of leptin and ghrelin, making it an essential metabolic component (Liu et al., 2019). Channel catfish MC4R gene is a two-exon gene with a transcript of 5,258 bp located on chromosome 20 (GenBank Accession No. LBML01001141.1).

In mammals, MC4R is predominantly expressed in the central nervous system (Liu et al., 2019). MC4R plays a key role in feeding inhibition with reduced expression leading to increased appetite (Fan et al., 1997). Homozygous MC4R deficient mice, Mus musculus, showed hyperphagic obesity and hyperinsulinemia, while heterozygous mice exhibited an intermediate phenotype (Vaisse et al., 1998). In humans, MC4R mutations are the leading genetic cause of obesity with some studies reporting up to 4% of early-onset obesity cases being caused by a missense of nonsense mutation in the gene (Carroll et al., 2005). Due to its effect on body weight and energy homeostasis, MC4R is a potentially valuable gene for improving growth and feed conversion traits in livestock.

In fish, MC4R plays a role in many physiological processes including appetite and energy expenditure (Cerda-Reverter et al., 2003; Schjolden et al., 2009). In zebrafish, Danio rerio, MC4R is largely controlled by MRAP2, which is found in two forms. Larval zebrafish produce MRAP2a, which down-regulates MC4R, thereby increasing appetite, and adults produce MRAP2b, which up-regulates MC4R (Liu et al., 2019). Similarly, CRISPR/Cas9 MC4R knockout zebrafish showed no phenotypic differences from wild-type individuals before 2.5 months post fertilization, while adults displayed increased food consumption, increased growth and higher body fat percentage compared to wild-type individuals (Fei et al., 2017). This compliments the natural growth rate of most fish, with larval fish exhibiting fast growth rate, which gradually slows down throughout its life and typically asymptotes after sexually maturity. Goldfish, Carassius auratus, and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, that were administered the MC4R agonist MTII showed feed inhibition, while those injected with MC4R antagonist, HS024 had increased feed intake and subsequent growth increases (Cerda-Reverter et al., 2003; Schjolden et al., 2009). Transgenic zebrafish overexpressing the MC4R antagonist agouti-related protein (AgRP) exhibited obesity, increased linear growth and adipocyte hypertrophy (Song and Cone, 2007).

Much of the research to date focused on SNPs and other natural mutations in the MC4R gene. In a study of Holland's carp, Spinibarbus hollandi, SNPs in the MC4R promoter region were associated with reduced expression levels of the gene and subsequently exhibited extremely high growth performance (Yang et al., 2018). In a study on F2 Mangalitsa x Pietrain pigs, Sus scrofa domesticus, heterozygous animals containing one of two mutations in the MC4R gene consumed 118 g more food and gained 32 g more per day than homozygous wild-types (Meidtner et al., 2006). The ease and precision of CRISPR/Cas9 and ability to generate large mutations that could potentially lead to larger phenotypic gains make the technology ideal for commercial use.

Previous studies show high mutation rates in MC4R gene edited fish. In a study by Xie et al. (2016), the mloxP gene was inserted into the zebrafish genome at the MC4R locus. Using a novel method in which oocytes are injected in advance and incubated in storage medium before fertilization, they were able to achieve a mutation rate of 94.4% in the MC4R locus in P1 individuals. Additionally, the germline transmission for MC4R mutation was 96.7%. Kawahara et al. (2015) achieved a 95% mutation rate in the MC4R locus of medaka, Oryzias latipes, using TALENs (Kawahara et al., 2015).

MC4R is a useful candidate not only for its role in body weight but also in fat production. In both brown and brindle cattle, Bos taurus, the C1069G SNP of the MC4R gene was associated with increased marbling (Lee et al., 2013). However, there was no association between the same SNP and marbling in a third breed, or any effect on carcass weight in any of the three breeds, indicating that certain mutations may only have commercial value in specific populations and species (Lee et al., 2013). If MC4R mutations cause a similar increase in fat production in fish, particularly in healthy omega-3 fatty acids, it could greatly increase economic value for its health and flavor qualities.

A third potentially useful trait of MC4R is its role in reproduction. Polymorphisms in swordtail and platyfish, Xiphophorus spp., males caused a nearly doubling of body weight as well as a delayed onset of sexual maturity and significant charge in mating behavior (Lampert et al., 2010). Large males with this polymorphism have complex mating rituals with females, while small, fast maturing males with normal MC4R genes exhibit sneak mating with females. The role of MC4R in reproduction varies between species and even sex. In mice, deletion of the MC4R gene causes hyperphagia, hyperinsulinemia, obesity and progressive infertility in females (Chen et al., 2017). MC4R knockout female mice had reduced levels of luteinizing hormone (lh), leading to irregular ovulation and reproductive ability, while males had no difference in testosterone levels (Chen et al., 2017). Medaka with mutations in the MC4R gene showed greater growth and slower embryonic development but no difference in onset of puberty (Liu et al., 2019). In spotted scat, Scatophagus argus, MC4R agonists NDP-MSH and THIQ significantly increased levels of primary reproductive hormones gnrh (Gonadotropin releasing hormone), fshb (Follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit) and lhb (Luteinizing hormone beta subunit), while MC4R antagonists, SHU9119 Ipsen 5i reduced levels of these three hormones (Jiang et al., 2017). This study indicates that MC4R participates in reproductive regulation in fish by stimulating gnrh expression in the hypothalamus and fshb and lhb in the pituitary (Jiang et al., 2017).

Many fish raised in captivity exhibit reproductive problems as they do not experience the same conditions that they would in the wild during spawning. Females often fail to produce mature oocytes or undergo spawning behavior while males often produce lower quality and quantity of milt (Zohar and Mylonas, 2001). The most common solutions are environmental manipulation and hormone therapy. Reproductive hormones have been regularly used since the 1930′s to induce final gamete maturation and spawning (Zohar and Mylonas, 2001). While early methods included ground up pituitaries containing gonadotropins, modern synthetic agonists and analogs, including LHRHa, GnRHa, and LHa exhibit increased potency and efficacy. These methods may overcome potential hormonal issues associated with MC4R mutations and allow germline transmission of the valuable mutation. By combining gene editing of the MC4R gene with hormone therapy, a farmer could have full reproductive control of their fish. They could therefore prevent unwanted mating, potentially prevent a slowdown in growth often associated with gonadal development and reduce environmental risk of escapement. A farmer could then restore fertility using hormonal therapy when required for spawning.

Successful knockout of MC4R and spawning of mutant broodstock does not guarantee that the mutation will be inherited in their progeny. Hruscha et al. (2013) achieved a 50% mutation rate in zebrafish using CRISPR/Cas9, but only 11% of progeny inherited the mutation. Varshney et al. (2015) attained a 53% mutation rate from 162 loci targeting 83 genes in zebrafish and had an average germline transmission rate of 28%. In this study however, mutated founder individuals were mated with wild-type fish, so that parents heterozygous for the mutation would skew the results towards a lower transmission rate. The study also included the 47% of the founders that did not carry mutations in their breeding program and results, further lowering the reported transmission rate. In a study on MC4R mutant mice and rats, Rattus norvegicus, half of the offspring of MC4R mutant rat crossed with wild-type rats tested positive for the mutation, indicating a high efficiency of germline transmission after CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated MC4R mutant rats were 43% larger than wild-type individuals and showed increased food intake and larger perirenal fat pads (Li et al., 2013). Still, due to mosaicism, epistasis and other unforeseen effects, germline transmission of CRISPR/Cas9 induced mutations are not necessarily inherited with Mendelian distributions. The rate of transmission is also largely dependent on the species, target gene, gRNA design, genotype of the parents and administration procedure.

This Example at least demonstrates knock out of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene in channel catfish, evaluation of growth, survival, inheritance of the mutation in the F 1 generation, effect of zygosity on growth rate.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Preparation of sgRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 System

Three customized small guide RNAs (sgRNAs) were designed and generated using the Maxiscript T7 PCR-based method. First, four gene-specific oligonucleotides (MC4R-A, MC4R-B, MC4R-C, MC4R-D; Table 9) containing the PAM were designed using the CRISPRscan online tool to target the channel catfish MC4R gene (GenBank Accession No. LBML01001141.1). Exon 1 was targeted in all four sgRNA sites in order to truncate the protein as early as possible to have the largest knockout effect. The Universal Primer (Table 9), containing the sgRNA scaffold, was ordered through Thermo Fisher Scientific. Each of the oligos was reconstituted using DNase/RNase Free water to 10mM. To create template for sgRNA synthesis, the three oligos were used to were synthesize double stranded DNA (dsDNA) by mixing 25 μl 2× EconoTaq Plus Master Mix (Lucigen), 12.5 μl Universal Primer, and 12.5 μl gene-specific oligonucleotide. PCR cycling was carried out with initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 5 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 50° C. for 30 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 30 sec; 20 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, extension at 72° C. for 20 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The Taq Polymerase was then inactivated using 4.8 μl of 0.5M EDTA and incubated at 75° C. for 20 min. The PCR product was confirmed using 1% agarose gel. The sgRNA was synthesized using the Maxiscript T7 Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), following the manufacture guidelines. A mix of 2 μl dH2O, 10 μl dsDNA Template (created above), 2 μl 10× buffer, 1 μl ATP, 1 μl CTP, 1 μl GTP, 1 μl UTP and 2 μl Enzyme Mix was incubated at 37° C. for 90 min. The solution was cleared of DNA contamination by adding 1 μl of Turbo DNase I, vortexing briefly and incubating at 37° C. for 15 min. The magnesium ions were chelated by adding 5 μl of 0.5M EDTA. The Turbo DNase I was inactivated by heating the solution at 75° C. for 10 min. The obtained sgRNAs were purified using Zymo RNA Clean and Concentrator kit (Zymo Research). The sgRNAs were stored in −80° C. freezer.

The Cas9 protein was acquired from PNA Bio (3541 Old Conejo Rd, Newbury Park, Calif. 91320) and reconstituted in dH₂0 to a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Twenty minutes prior to fertilizing the eggs, four sets of injection solutions were prepared by mixing equal parts of Cas9 protein with each of the sgRNAs individually, and a fourth solution combining all three sgRNA with Cas9 protein (MC4Rmix). The mixture was incubated on ice for 10 minutes before adding phenol red to a total ratio of 1:1:1 of Cas9, sgRNA and Phenol red, respectively. The final concentrations of Cas9 protein and sgRNA were 300-350 ng/μl and 150-200 ng/μl, respectively.

TABLE 9 SEQ ID Oligo sequence (5′ to 3′) Oligo name NO: AAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGATAACG Universal Primer 80 GACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAGCTCTAAAAC taatacgactcactataGGGATGGCGCTGATCACCAGgtt MC4R-A 81 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGAAAGGAACTCGGAGTCgttt MC4R-B 82 tagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCAGGATGGTGAGCGTCAgtt MC4R-C 83 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGTGGTGGCGTTCGGTCCGAgtt MSTN1 84 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCGAGGCGCAGTGTTCAGgtt MSTN2 85 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGTCGAGCAGCTGCTGCACgtt MSTN3 86 ttagagctagaa GGAGATGGAGGACACGGAAG MC4R-ALL-1F 87 GAGACATGAAGCAGACGCAATA MC4R-ALL-1R 88 taatacgactcactataGTGATGGCGCTGATCACCAGgtt MC4R-A2-sense 89 ttagagctagaa taatacgactcactainCGGGATGCAGCATGCACACCgtt MC4R-D-antisense 90 ttagagctagaa taatacgacicactataCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGATGCCgtt PUC57 Vector 91 ttagagctagaa TATCGAACGCGACAGAAACGGCTGTGATGGCGCTGATCAC BsalElvol2_ssODN1 92 GCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCGTCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGAT BsalElvol2_ssODN2 93 CCAGCGGAACCTGACCATCTCTGGAGACGTCGTGAAAAGC GAGGAGGTCTTGCGGATATGAACGTGTCGGAGCACCACGG BsalElvol2_ssODN3 94 GCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCGTCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGAT BsalElvol2_ssODN4 95 GATGCAGCATGCACACCGGAACCACAGCCTGGGCGTGCAG ACTCCTCTCTGAGACCTGAC EX1-F 96 AGTTAGGCTATGAAGCAGTAGT EX1-R 97 CGAAATCCGTTCCTTTTTACTG Evol2-F 98 CTGGCCTGTTCCTCATGTATTT Evol2-R 99

Table 9 shows primers used to amplify partial sequences of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, oligonucleotides to target specified regions for CRISPR/Cas9 cleavage and single-stranded oligo donor nucleotide (ssODN). Universal primer was used to bind oligonucleotides to Cas-9 protein. Red letters indicate binding site to target gRNAs. MC4R-A, MC4R-B, MC4R-C, MC4R-A2-sense and MC4R-D-antisense were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MSTN-1, MSTN-2 and MSTN-3 were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MC4R-ALL-1F and MC4R-ALL-1R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. EX1-F and EX1-R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. PUC57 Vector was used to amplify a partial sequence of the Evol2 plasmid containing the elongase gene. BsalElvol2_ssODN1 and BsalElvol2_ssODN2 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-A2-sense gRNA to facilitate Homologous Directed Repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene. BsalElvol2_ssODN3 and BsalElvol2_ssODN4 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-D-antisense gRNA to facilitate Homologous Directed Repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene.

2.2. Brood Stock Husbandry, Selection and Spawning

Brood stock were cultured in 0.04-ha earthen ponds averaging 1-meter in depth. They were fed a 32 percent protein catfish pellet at 1-2% of their body weight five days per week. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 3 mg/L using a ¹/₂ horsepower surface aerator (Air-O-Lator).

The Kansas strain of channel catfish was chosen as broodstock due to their superior growth and fry output when induced by injection of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogs (LHRHa). Individuals were chosen based on their health and secondary sexual characteristics. Males with well-developed papilla and large, muscular heads that were wider than the rest of their bodies were chosen. Dark coloring and scarring from territorial fighting were also signs of quality males in reproductive condition. Females with soft, well-rounded abdomen that were wider than their head, and a swollen urogenital opening were chosen. Broodstock were minimally handled and kept in tanks for as short a time as possible to avoid stress.

Males were terminated by a percussive blow to the head followed by pithing. The body cavity was opened carefully with a scalpel, ensuring not to pierce any organs. Testes were removed using tweezers and/or scissors and washed in a weigh boat with 0.9 percent saline using bottled distilled water, removing any blood or tissue. The water was drained, and the testes weighed before macerating the testes using scissors to release sperm. The homogenized testes were then filtered into a 50mL falcon tube using a 100-micron screen. The sperm was then diluted with 0.9 percent saline solution to a maximum of 10mL/gram of testes. Sperm concentration was tested using a Nanodrop 2000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and running a simple linear regression between sperm concentration and absorbance using the equation y=−2.450+0.1851nX (Adjusted R2=0.601) at 450 nm (Cuevas-Uribe & Tiersch, 2011). Motility was analyzed under a 10× light microscope while sperm count was checked under 40× magnification. Ideally, sperm was used immediately, but could be stored at 4° C. for one week, with declining quality or up to two weeks with the addition of gentamycin at a concentration of 1 mg/mL sperm solution.

Females were weighed and gently placed in labeled 32 mm mesh bags. The spawning bags were then placed in a flow through holding tank so that the fish was fully submerged, ensuring that water quality was ideal with dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L. A 14-gauge implanter was loaded with 100 μg/kg body weight of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) implant. The needle was then inserted at a 45-degree angle ventrally adjacent to the pelvic fin and the implant was inserted. The ovulation time was predicted based on the degree-hours according to Phelps et al. (2007). Water temperature ranged from 26-28° C. Females were checked 36 hours after LHRHa injection and every four hours after that until ovulation. Once a female began ovulating, indicated by eggs visible on the bag, she was carefully transferred into a tank with 100 mg/L buffered tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) with equal parts sodium bicarbonate until completely anesthetized. Prior to this time, a thin layer of vegetable shortening, Crisco, was used to coat several 20 cm diameter metal egg collection pans. The fish was then dipped in fresh water to wash off the MS-222 and gently dried with a towel. A thick layer of vegetable shortening was applied around the urogenital opening, including the pelvic fins to prevent sticking of the eggs during stripping. The female was hand stripped into the greased pan by gently applying pressure on the abdomen from the anterior end of the abdomen posteriorly towards the vent. Eggs would usually flow freely, well rounded and golden in color, with minimal blood. The stripping ensured that the eggs could not contact freshwater, which can activate the eggs. Eggs were then covered with another spawning pan to maintain moisture and transported to the molecular laboratory.

Approximately 200-300 eggs were transferred to a greased pan for fertilization. Approximately 3 mL of sperm solution was added to the eggs and mixed gently with fingertips. Fresh water was added to barely cover the eggs in order to activate the sperm and eggs and the water was swirled to form a single layer and prevent sticking. After two minutes, the eggs should be fertilized, and three more cm of water was added to the eggs and the eggs were left to harden for 15 minutes.

While the embryos were hardening, 5-10 μl of the Cas9/sgRNA/phenol red mixture was loaded into 1.0 mm OD borosilicate glass capillary microinjection needles using a microloader. The tips of the needles were opened by breaking the end with a scalpel. The needle was then inserted into the micropipette holder to its deepest range and tightened, ensuring a tight seal. The compressed air cylinder was opened, and pressure was adjusted to 7000 kPa and 0.824 m³/hr using the pressure regulator. The injection volume was adjusted to 50n1 by manipulating the pressure, the length of injection and the needle diameter. Injection volume was measured by injecting a drop of mineral oil on a hemocytometer.

After 15 minutes 100-200 embryos were transferred in a single layer to a greased 100 mm petri dish and covered with Holtfreter's solution (Table 10). The petri dish was placed on the stage of the microscope. In one smooth motion, the needle was lowered until it pierced the chorion and yolk, and the pedal of the microinjector was depressed, delivering the CRISPR solution, and withdrawing slowly. For best results, the solution was injected as close to the blastodisc as possible. When the blastodisc was not visible, the solution was spread throughout the embryo by depressing the pedal while simultaneously withdrawing the needle smoothly.

To reduce mosaicism, embryos were injected between 15 min and 90 min post-fertilization, while they remained in the one cell stage. Injection controls were injected with 50n1 of phenol red, while non-inject controls were not injected.

Embryos were placed in four-liter tubs of Holtfreter's solution with 10 mg/L doxycycline kept at 27° C. with continuous aeration. The solution was changed, and dead embryos were removed daily. After about 5 days, or when the embryos were moving rapidly within the egg membrane and close to hatch, doxycycline treatment was discontinued. At 20 dph fry were moved to aquaria in recirculating systems until large enough to be PIT (Passive Integrated Transponders) tagged and moved to earthen ponds.

TABLE 10 Name of Material/ Catalog Equipment Type Company Number Comments/Description Reproboost ® Hormone Center of Marine Biotechnology Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone implant analog (LHRHa) for artificial spawning TRICAINE-S Anesthesia Western Chemical. Inc. For sedation of brood stock fish during hormone injection and egg stripping. Phenol red Reagent Sigma-Aldrich P0290 0.5%, sterile filtered Stereo microscope Equipment Olympus 213709 For visualizing the eggs during microinjection Microinjector Equipment ASI-Applied Model MPPI-3 For the delivery of the injection material into Scientific the embryos Insturmentation Micromanipulator Equipment ASI-Applied Model MM33 For holding and controlling the movement of Scientific the injection needle. Insturmentation Eppendorf Tool Eppendorf 5242956.003 For loading injection solution into Microloader microinjection needles. Vertical needle Equipment David Kopf Model 720 For pulling microinjection needles puller Instruments Borosilicate glass Tool Fisher Scientific 1 mm outer diameter (OD), for making capillaries microinjection needles. Petri dish Tool VWR 25384-302 For holding the embryos during the microinjection. Crisco ® Vegetable The J.M. Smucker Company For coating spawning pans and petri dishes. shortening Holtfreter's Reagent Lab Made 59 mM NaCl, 0.67 mM KCl, 2.4 mM solution NaHCO3, 0.76 mM CaCl2, 1.67 mM MgSO4 (Armstrong et al., 1989) to incubate the microinjected embryos till hatch. Doxycycline Antibiotic Letco Medical 690904 Added to Holtfreter's solution to 10 ppm to hyclate USP prevent bacterial infections. (monohydrate)

Table 10 shows name, type of material, company, catalog number (if applicable) of materials and equipment used in microinjection protocol for CRISPR/Cas9 in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus.

2.3. Mutation Analysis

Pelvic fin-clip samples (10-20 mg) were collected in sterile 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes and kept in a −80° C. freezer until DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using proteinase K digestion and ethanol precipitation using the following protocol: fin clips were digested in 600 μl of cell lysis buffer (100 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris, 25 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) and 2.5 μl of proteinase K in a 55° C. hot water bath for 4-8 hours, with occasional vortexing. Protein was precipitated by adding 200 μl of protein precipitation solution (Qiagen, 19300 Germantown Road Germantown, Md. 20874), vortexed, stored on ice for 12 minutes and centrifuged for 8 minutes at 15,000 rcf. The supernatant containing DNA was then precipitated with isopropanol followed by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 15,000rcf and finally washed twice with 75% ethanol by inverting gently 5-times before being dissolved in dH2O. DNA concentration and purity was measured using a NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and concentration was adjusted to 500 ng/μl.

The primer set MC4R1-F, MC4R1-R (Table 9) was designed using Primer3plus to encapsulate all possible mutation sites. The Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) was used with 500 ng of genomic DNA. A Bio-Rad T100 Thermal Cycler was used to run PCR with an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 34 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 60° C. for 40 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 40 sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The PCR product was confirmed on a 1% TAE Tris base, acetic acid and EDTA agarose gel. The PCR product from the treatment fish was mixed with PCR product from a wild type control of the same family at a 1:1 ratio. The combined product was then hybridized in a BioRad Thermocycler using an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 85° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 75° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 65° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 55° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 45° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 35° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 25° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec.

The Surveyor® mutation detection kit (Integrated DNA Technologies) was used to detect mutations. Hybridized products were mixed with Nuclease S, Enhancer S, MgCl2 and Reaction Buffer (2) according to kit instructions and incubated at 42° C. for one hour. The digested products were separated on a 1.5 percent TBE (Tris borate EDTA) agarose gel and compared with that of control samples.

To confirm and identify the mutations, positive samples were sequenced using the TA cloning method. The largest individuals from each treatment that repeatedly were confirmed as mutants using Surveyor Analysis were sequenced. First, genomic DNA from three mutants per treatment was amplified with PCR using Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) using the above protocol. The PCR product was verified using a 1 percent TAE agarose gel and cloned into the TOPO® TA Cloning® Kit (Invitrogen) with 20 clones per sample and sent to MCLabs for sequencing. The resulting sequences were interpreted using the MAFFT sequence alignment tool.

2.4. Generation of F1 Progeny

In 2016 and 2017 spawning of MC4R broodstock was unsuccessful, even though broodstock showed outstanding secondary sexual traits. Male and female MC4R mutants were paired in aquaria and injected with 100 μg/kg body weight of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) implant in our standard procedure.

In 2018 both male and female P1 MC4R mutants were injected with 40μg/kg LHRHa and 1600 international units (IU) HCG intraperitoneally, resulting in successful spawning of all pairs that were mated. A total of 8 MC4R pairings were generated. Five pairings were made between wild-type females x P1 MC4R mutant males, 2 pairings between P1 MC4R mutant females x wild-type males and 1 pairing between a P1 MC4R mutant female x P1 MC4R mutant male. One pair of wildtype Kansas strain channel catfish from the same family were paired in identical conditions as controls but using our standard protocol of 100 μg/kg LHRHa. The system received flow through water from a source pond between 26-28° C. and dissolved oxygen was maintained above 5 mg/L using an air stone diffuser. Starting 24 hours after injection, the bottom of the aquaria were checked every two hours for courtship behavior and egg masses. Egg masses were weighed and transferred to 4 L bins of Holtzfreter's solution and maintained according to the protocol in 2.2.

In 2019, two more families of MC4RxMC4R and MC4RxCNTRL were generated using the same method as 2018. Two and three-year old MC4R gene edited channel catfish with good secondary sexual characteristics were chosen as brood stock. Both male and female P1 MC4R mutants were injected with 40 μg/kg LHRHa and 1600 international units (IU) HCG intraperitoneally and kept in 70-liter glass aquaria. Two pairs of wild-type Kansas strain channel catfish from the same family were paired in identical conditions as controls. The system received flow through water from a source pond between 26-28° C. and dissolved oxygen was maintained above 5 mg/L using an air stone diffuser. Starting 24 hours after injection, the bottom of the aquaria were checked every two hours for courtship behavior and egg masses. Egg masses were transferred to 4 L bins of Holtzfreter's solution and maintained according to the protocol in 2.2.

2.5. Grow Out and Growth Sampling

One-hundred fry per genetic type were stocked into 3-replicate 50 L aquaria in recirculating systems for growth experiments. Fish in each aquarium were fed ad-libitum with Aquamax powdered and pelleted fish diets and catfish diets.

Pellet feed size was adjusted to a maximum of ¼ the size of the mouth as the fish grew. Fry were fed Purina® AquaMax® powdered starter feed until they were large enough to eat Purina® AquaMax® 100. Both feeds contained 50% protein. All fish were fed every day to satiation. Fish were weighed at 4 months, pit tagged and stocked communally in a 0.04-ha pond at approximately 10,000 fish/ha in 3 replicate confined ponds. Fifteen fish per genetic type remained in the aquaria in the recirculating system. The fish were sampled at 10 months in both aquaria and ponds. At 15 months of age fish in ponds and in aquaria were harvested and body weight determined. During these growth trials any mortality due to disease was identified by family, genotype and sex, and the pathogen identified. Having fish in multiple environments is necessary to determine any genotype-environment interactions to ensure increased performance is observed in a more commercial-like culture unit.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

To calculate differences in body weight between MC4R mutants and controls, a paired t-test was performed using R programming language (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria). To calculate differences in body weight between F1 MC4R families and CNTRL families a one-way ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparisons test were performed using R programming language. In cases where different treatments were kept in separate aquaria at varying densities, a regression based on density was calculated, and weights were adjusted accordingly before running the statistical analysis. Differences in mutation rate were calculated with logistic regression using R programming language.

3. Results 3.1. Growth

A total of 6 MC4R mutant P1 channel catfish and 29 control channel catfish generated in 2017 were PIT tagged and transferred into a 0.04-ha earthen pond at 12-months post hatch (mean body weight for MC4R and CNTRL were 55.75 g and 46.90 g, respectively). Mutants and controls were kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and channel catfish female x blue catfish male hybrids, to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. At 12-months post hatch, MC4R mutants had an observed mean 19% and 8.85 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.605, r²=0.009) (Table 11). At 18-months post hatch and market size, MC4R mutants had an observed mean 48% and 199.10 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.061, r²=0.103) (FIG. 11). At 27-months post hatch, the observed mean for MC4R mutants was 14% and 126.50 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.330, r²=0.050). At 33-months post hatch, MC4R mutants had an observed mean 13% and 188.00 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.400, r²=0.038). At 36-months post hatch, the fish were nearly too large for processor acceptability, and the observed mean for MC4R mutants was16% and 300.00 g larger than controls, but not significantly (p=0.231, r²=0.128).

A total of 21 MC4R female x MC4R male homozygous/bi-allelic MC4R mutant F1 channel catfish (MC4RxMC4R), 113 CNTRL female x MC4R male heterozygous MC4R mutant channel catfish in 5 families (CNTRLxMC4R-1, CNTRLxMC4R-2, CNTRLxMC4R-3, CNTRLxMC4R-4, CNTRLxMC4R-5), 36 MC4R female x CNTRL male heterozygous MC4R mutant channel catfish in 2 families (MC4RxCNTRL-1 and MC4RxCNTRL-2) and 20 control (CNTRLxCNTRL) channel catfish were generated in 2018. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 6-months post hatch when they were large enough to be PIT tagged and transferred into a communal 0.04-ha pond. Mutants and controls were kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrid catfish, at a maximum density of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 6-months post hatch (p<2.2e-16). At 6-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 7% and 1.186 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.451) (Table 12). CNTRLxMC4R-1 mutants were 20% and 2.75 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.046). CNTRLxMC4R-2 mutants were 12% and 1.99 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.232). CNTRLxMC4R-3 mutants were 3% and 0.54 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.739). CNTRLxMC4R-4 mutants were 86% and 14.31 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=3.11e-15). CNTRLxMC4R-5 mutants were 14% and 8.86 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=1.26e-7). Overall, at 6-months post hatch, CNTRLxMC4R mutants were 1% and 0.15 g smaller on average than controls, but not significantly (p=0.934). MC4RxCNTRL-1 mutants were 18% and 2.55 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.111). MC4RxCNTRL-2 mutants were 14% and 2.07 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.222). Overall, at 6-months post hatch, MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 16% and 2.34 g smaller on average than controls, but not significantly (p=0.253).

Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 12-months post hatch (p<2e-16). At 12-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 3% and 3.21 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.986) (Table 12). CNTRLxMC4R-1 mutants were 38% and 8.94 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.001). CNTRLxMC4R-2 mutants were 12% and 3.86 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.277). CNTRLxMC4R-3 mutants were 23% and 6.08 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.081). CNTRLxMC4R-4 mutants were 71% and 23.18 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=1.65e-10). CNTRLxMC4R-5 mutants were 84% and 14.94 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=7.85e-6). Overall, at 12-months post hatch, CNTRLxMC4R mutants were 11% and 3.20 g smaller on average than controls, but not significantly (p=0.356). MC4RxCNTRL-1 mutants were 8% and 2.41 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.452). MC4RxCNTRL-2 mutants were 10% and 2.90 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.403). Overall, at 12-months post hatch, MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 9% and 2.62 g smaller on average than controls, but not significantly (p=0.509).

Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 15-months post hatch (p<2.67e-8). At 15-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 5% and 10.14 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.999) (Table 12). CNTRLxMC4R-1 mutants were 37% and 55.43 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.049). CNTRLxMC4R-2 mutants were 26% and 42.44 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.475). CNTRLxMC4R-3 mutants were 49% and 66.98 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.041). CNTRLxMC4R-4 mutants were 36% and 73.96 g larger than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.064). CNTRLxMC4R-5 mutants were 58% and 74.91 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.005). Overall, at 15-months post hatch, CNTRLxMC4R mutants were 32% and 48.77 g smaller on average than controls , but not significantly (p=0.077). MC4RxCNTRL-1 mutants were 23% and 37.83 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.519). MC4RxCNTRL-2 mutants were 30% and 46.23 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL, but not significantly (p=0.525). Overall, at 15-months post hatch, MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 24% and 40.12 g smaller on average than controls, but not significantly (p=0.262).

There were no significant differences in body weight among treatments at 21-months post hatch when treatments were at market size (p=0.109) (FIG. 12). Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 24-months post hatch (p=0.039). At 24-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 9% and 67.71 larger than CNTRLxCNTRL(p=0.999) (Table 12). CNTRLxMC4R-1 mutants were 29% and 170.95 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.625). CNTRLxMC4R-2 mutants were 16% and 105.95 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.980). CNTRLxMC4R-3 mutants were 98% and 374.29 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.064). CNTRLxMC4R-4 mutants were not measured during this sampling period, due to partial seining of the pond. CNTRLxMC4R-5 mutants were 34% and 190.29 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.783). Overall, at 24-months post hatch, CNTRLxMC4R mutants were 36% and 197.43 g smaller on average than controls (p=0.177). MC4RxCNTRL-1 mutants were 14% and 90.00 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.977). MC4RxCNTRL-2 mutants were not measured during this sampling period. Overall, at 24-months post hatch, MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 14% and 90.00 g smaller on average than controls (p=0.833).

No significant differences in body weight existed among families at 28-months post hatch (p=0.196). However, homozygous/bi-allelic mutants were 30% larger than pooled Fl heterozygotes (p=0.022).

A total of 112 MC4R female x MC4R male homozygous/bi-allelic MC4R mutant Fl channel catfish (MC4RxMC4R), 109 MC4R female x CNTRL male heterozygous MC4R mutant channel catfish (MC4RxCNTRL), and 108 control channel catfish in two families (CNTRLxCNTRL-1 and CNTRLxCNTRL-2) were generated in 2019. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 6-months post hatch when they were large enough to be PIT tagged and transferred into a communal 0.04-ha pond. Mutants and controls were kept communally with channel catfish, blue catfish, and hybrid catfish, at a maximum density of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 12-months post hatch (p=1.57e-7) (Table 13). At 12-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 30% and 8.77 g larger than the mean of both CNTRLxCNTRL families (p=′7.1e-5) (Table 13). MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 9% and 2.34 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.493).

Significant differences in body weight existed among treatments at 18-months post hatch (p=1.68e-4). At 18-months post hatch, MC4RxMC4R mutants were 40% and 15.75 g larger than the mean of both CNTRLxCNTRL families (p=0.005) (FIG. 13). MC4RxCNTRL mutants were 10% and 3.73 g smaller than CNTRLxCNTRL (p=0.721).

TABLE 11 12 months 18 months 27 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV CNTRL 27 46.90 23.45 50.01 29 417.59 217.48 52.08 16 917.50 212.78 23.19 MC4R 2 55.75 13.79 24.73 6 616.67 281.54 45.66 5 1044.00 346.81 33.22 p-value 0.522 0.151 0.475 33 months 36 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV CNTRL 15 1412.00 368.90 26.13 8 1820.00 305.75 16.80 MC4R 6 1600.00 629.32 39.33 5 2120.00 556.06 26.23 p-value 0.517 0.314

Table 11 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of P1 melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) knockout mutant and control (CNTRL) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, at 12 months, 18 months, 27 months, 33 months and 36 months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. Paired t-test was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05).

TABLE 12 6 months 12 months 15 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV MC4R × MC4R 21 17.79 5.38 30.25 18 35.93 9.51 26.47 6 194.00 35.51 18.31 CNTRL × MC4R-1 42 *13.85 4.69 33.85 41 *23.78 10.18 42.79 26 *148.71 52.45 35.27 CNTRL × MC4R-2 17 18.59 7.09 38.16 13 36.58 13.21 36.11 10 161.70 44.38 27.45 CNTRL × MC4R-3 18 16.06 4.21 26.25 14 26.64 5.85 21.94 9 *137.17 33.33 24.30 CNTRL × MC4R-4 17 *30.91 7.01 22.68 15 *55.9 14.93 26.70 5 278.10 41.14 14.79 CNTRL × MC4R-5 19 *7.74 2.83 36.58 18 *17.78 5.78 32.50 13 *129.23 29.81 23.07 MC4R × CNTRL-1 20 14.05 4.01 28.51 19 30.32 8.68 28.62 16 166.31 33.97 20.42 MC4R × CNTRL-2 16 14.53 5.09 35.01 14 29.82 8.83 29.62 6 157.92 27.33 17.31 CNTRL × CNTRL 20 16.60 4.38 26.40 18 32.72 7.26 22.18 7 204.14 37.81 18.52 MC4R × MC4R 21 17.79 5.38 30.25 18 35.93 9.51 26.47 6 194.00 35.51 18.31 CNTRL × MC4R 113 16.45 8.61 52.32 101 29.52 15.94 53.98 63 155.37 57.02 36.70 MC4R × CNTRL 36 14.26 4.46 31.25 33 30.11 8.61 28.59 22 164.02 31.88 19.44 CNTRL × CNTRL 20 16.60 4.38 26.40 18 32.72 7.26 22.18 7 204.14 37.81 18.52 21 months 24 months 28 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV MC4R × MC4R 8 572.50 154.16 26.93 5 822.00 182.26 22.17 7 1322.86 364.31 27.54 CNTRL × MC4R-1 24 475.83 166.50 34.99 18 583.33 263.17 45.11 21 960.00 294.75 30.70 CNTRL × MC4R-2 5 556.00 181.33 32.61 6 648.33 233.96 36.09 6 956.67 126.12 13.18 CNTRL × MC4R-3 7 411.43 131.08 31.86 6 380.00 212.41 55.90 7 942.86 307.12 32.57 CNTRL × MC4R-4 — — — — — — — — 4 1030.00 529.28 51.39 CNTRL × MC4R-5 9 462.22 156.35 33.83 5 564.00 213.26 37.81 6 1070.00 134.31 12.55 MC4R × CNTRL-1 13 540.00 162.48 30.09 14 664.29 234.58 35.31 14 1148.57 324.46 28.25 MC4R × CNTRL-2 6 399.50 63.67 15.94 — — — — — — — CNTRL × CNTRL 12 578.33 149.78 25.90 7 754.29 114.14 15.13 10 1044.00 304.89 29.20 MC4R × MC4R 8 572.50 154.16 26.93 5 822.00 182.26 22.17 7 1322.86 364.31 27.54 CNTRL × MC4R 45 472.00 160.25 33.95 35 556.86 249.08 44.73 44 978.18 280.92 28.72 MC4R × CNTRL 14 524.29 166.81 31.82 14 664.29 234.58 35.31 14 1148.57 324.46 28.25 CNTRL × CNTRL 12 578.33 149.78 25.90 7 754.29 114.14 15.13 10 1044.00 304.89 29.20

Table 12 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of control, melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) F1 heterozygous knockout and MC4R F1 homozygous/bi-allelic knockout channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2018 at 6-months, 12-months, 15-months, 21-months, 24-months post hatch and 28-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. ANOVA was used to determine significant differences between treatments (p<0.05) indicated by asterisk in each column.

TABLE 13 Mean Body Weight (grams) 12 months 18 months N Mean SD CV N Mean SD CV MC4R × MC4R 112 *37.58 10.07 26.79 41 *55.44 21.18 38.21 MC4R × CNTRL 109 26.47 8.94 33.76 44 35.95 17.10 47.56 CNTRL × CNTRL-1 79 30.49 25.98 85.19 26 43.88 29.30 66.76 CNTRL × CNTRL-2 30 24.37 9.01 36.96 12 30.58 18.24 59.63 MC4R × MC4R 112 *37.58 10.07 26.79 41 *55.44 21.18 38.21 MC4R × CNTRL 108 26.39 8.94 33.88 44 35.95 17.10 47.56 CNTRL × CNTRL 109 28.81 22.73 78.91 38 39.68 26.80 67.52

Table 13 shows mean body weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) F1 heterozygous knockout, MC4R F 1 homozygous/bi-allelic knockout and control (CNTRL), channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2019 at 12-months and 18-months post hatch. Mutants and controls were kept separately in 50 L aquaria until 12-months post hatch, when they were pit-tagged and transferred to a 0.04 ha earthen pond and kept communally with unrelated channel catfish, blue catfish, I. furcatus, and hybrids to bring the density to a commercial level of 10,000 fish/ha and fed daily to satiation. Sampling was performed with partial seining of the pond. ANOVA was used to determine significant differences between CNTRLxCNTRL-2 (p<0.05) indicated by asterisk in each column.

3.2. Mutation Analysis

A total of 18 fish survived microinjection of CRISPR/Cas9 and sgRNA targeting exon 1 of the MC4R gene in 2017. The mutation rate of the survivors was 33.3% (6/18) (Table 14). There was a significant difference in mutation rate between families generated in 2018 (p<0.05). Of the 6 P1 mutants 33.3% were homozygous/bi-allelic and 66.7% were heterozygous. In 2018, a total of 398 F 1 MC4R offspring within 8 families were generated by pairing P1 mutants. One family was generated by pairing a MC4R mutant female with a MC4R mutant male (MC4RxMC4R), 5 families were generated by pairing a wild-type female with a MC4R mutant male (CNTRLxMC4R-1,2,3,4,5), and 2 families were generated by pairing a MC4R mutant female with a wild-type male (MC4RxCNTRL-1,2). The average mutation rate for all F1 MC4R channel catfish was 42% (170/398). Of the 21 MC4RxMC4R F1 mutants, 76% (16/21) were homozygotes/bi-allelic.

In 2019, a total of 130 F1 MC4R offspring were generated by pairing a MC4R mutant female with a MC4R mutant male (MC4RxMC4R). The mutation rate was 86% (112/130) and 72% of mutants were homozygotes/bi-allelic (81/112) (Table 14). The same year, a total of 180 F 1 MC4R offspring were generated by pairing a MC4R mutant female with a wild-type male (MC4RxCNTRL). The mutation rate was 61% (109/180). The average mutation rate for all F1 MC4R channel catfish was 71% (221/310). There was a significant difference in mutation rate between families generated in 2019 (p<0.05).

Gel electrophoresis confirmed mutations in both P1 and F1 generations of MC4R mutants (FIG. 14). Multiple bands in the image corresponded to expected cut sites. In all cases, 1 band indicated a wild-type sequence, while multiple bands were associated with mutations. Each positive result was confirmed with a second gel.

Sequence results confirmed mutations indicated by gel electrophoresis. Two F 1 mutants were tested with each possessing mutations in exon 1 in the MC4R gene (FIG. 15). Both samples had large deletions occurring outside of the target sites. There were no insertions generated. The MC4RxMC4R sample was a homozygous/bi-allelic mutant and contained a deletion (−641bp) spanning nearly the entire amplicon. The CNTRLxMC4R sample was a heterozygous mutant with four large deletions (−427bp, −211bp, −67bp, −127bp) and 26 substitutions.

TABLE 14 Year Mutation Rate Homozygosity/ Spawned Family KO Bi-allelism 2017 P1 MC4R Channel 33% (6/18) 33% (2/6) 2018 F1 MC4R × MC4R 50% (21/42) 76% (16/21) 2018 F1 CNTRL × MC4R-1 67% (42/63) 0% (0/42) 2018 F1 CNTRL × MC4R-2 44% (17/39) 0% (0/17) 2018 F1 CNTRL × MC4R-3 50% (18/36) 0% (0/18) 2018 F1 CNTRL × MC4R-4 50% (17/34) 0% (0/17) 2018 F1 CNTRL × MC4R-5 83% (19/23) 0% (0/19) 2018 F1 MC4R × CNTRL-1 15% (20/133) 0% (0/20) 2018 F1 MC4R × CNTRL-2 57% (16/28) 0% (0/16) 2018 CNTRL × CNTRL 0% (0/20) 0% (0/0) 2019 F1 MC4R × MC4R 86% (112/130) 72% (81/112) 2019 F1 MC4R × CNTRL 61% (109/180) 0% (0/109)

Table 14 shows mutation rate and zygosity of all melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene edited channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, generated in 2017, 2018 and 2019. Each row indicates a different family. P1 indicates fish gene edited through microinjection using CRISPR/Cas9 and various gRNAs targeting exon one of the MC4R gene. Approximately 50 nl of solution, composed of 300-350 ng/μl Cas9 protein and 0-200 ng/μl sgRNA, was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. F 1 indicates the offspring of either control channel catfish female x control channel catfish male, control channel catfish female x homozygous/bi-allelic MC4R mutant channel catfish male, homozygous/bi-allelic MC4R mutant channel catfish female x control channel catfish or MC4R mutant channel catfish female x homozygous/bi-allelic MC4R mutant channel catfish male. Logistic regression was used to determine significant p-values (<0.05). There were significant differences in mutation rate between families in 2018 and 2019.

4. Discussion

In this Example, the effects of microinjection of gRNAs targeting exon 1 of the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor gene in conjunction with Cas9 protein on mutation rate and growth were investigated. Efficient mutagenesis was achieved as demonstrated by PCR, Surveyor assay and DNA sequencing. A total of 18 fish survived microninjection of CRISPR/Cas9 and sgRNA targeting exon one of the MC4R gene in 2017 with a mutation rate of 33% (6/18). Of the 6 P1 mutants 33% were homozygous/bi-allelic. This is substantially lower than the mutation rate of 87% achieved in both zebrafish and rats (Xie et al., 2016; Li et al., 2013). Growth was generally, but not always, higher in P1 MC4R mutants when compared to controls at all life stages and in pond and tank environments. A hormone mix of LHRHa and HCG was necessary as a therapy and inducement to allow P1 MC4R mutant channel catfish to spawn, resulting in the F1 generation. Homozygous F1 MC4R mutants grew 26.7% faster than controls in earthen ponds to a kg, but heterozygous F1 mutants were not different than controls for body weight.

Successful spawning of MC4R mutants to produce F1 progeny was achieved in both 2018 and 2019, and offspring inherited the mutation at a high rate. In 2018, a total of 398 F1 MC4R offspring within 8 families were generated by pairing P1 mutants. The average mutation rate for all F1 MC4R channel catfish was 42% (170/398). Of the 21 MC4RxMC4R F1 mutants, 76% (16/21) were homozygotes/bi-allelic. In 2019, a total of 310 F1 MC4R offspring within 2 families were generated by pairing P1 mutants. The average mutation rate for all F1 MC4R channel catfish was 71% (221/310). The inheritance rates were much higher than those achieved by Hruscha et al. (2013) and Vashney et al. (2015), where 11% and 28% of zebrafish progeny inherited the MC4R mutation, indicating much less mosaicism being generated with our protocols for catfish. The variability was likely due to a combination of environmental and genetic effects.

Growth was generally higher in MC4R mutants when compared to controls at all life stages and in both pond and tank environments. Beyond the stocker stage, MC4R mutants grew faster than controls. There was a positive relationship between zygosity and growth, with F 1 homozygous/bi-allelic mutants growing faster than both MC4RxCNTRL and CNTRLxMC4R F1 heterozygotes. This increase in growth in MC4R mutants supports previous studies on fish, chickens, pigs and mice (Yang et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020; Wan et al., 2012; Li et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2000; Lu et al., 1994). Homozygous F1 MC4R mutants grew 26.7% faster than controls to market size. Similarly, Holland's carp containing a SNP in the MC4R gene grew 25% faster at 1-year of age than wild-type carp (Yang, 2018). MC4R knockout zebrafish were 15.7% larger at 3-months of age than wild-type zebrafish (Fei et al., 2017; calculated using ImageJ). Chicken containing a SNP in the MC4R gene were between 1.1-6.7%larger than wild type chickens (Li and Li, 2006; Kubota et al., 2019). Al-Thuwaini et al. (2020) found that Awassi sheep breed containing a SNP in the MC4R gene grew 17.1% faster than the Arabi breed containing the wild-type MC4R gene. Pigs containing a SNP in the MC4R gene grew 0-6.0% faster than wild-type individuals (Meidtner et al., 2006; Panda et al., 2019). While few studies have investigated mutations of MC4R in fish, current data indicates that mutations in fish result in larger phenotypic gains than terrestrial animals. The larger gains in teleost fish are likely explained by the larger proportion of muscle to body weight in fish compared to terrestrial animals (Tlusty et al., 2018) or the indeterminate growth of fish. This faster growth to harvest makes MC4R a valuable gene commercially.

The growth of individual MC4R mutants and different MC4R families varied. This is likely due to differences in knockout patterns and subsequent expression levels of MC4R, differences in genetic background coupled with epistatic interaction with other loci. The variability can be advantageous as combining gene editing with selection for the largest individuals might result in maximum genetic enhancement.

There appeared to be an effect of zygosity on body weight. The wild-type allele appears to be dominant as body weight in heterozygous MC4R mutants was not different than that of controls, while homozygous mutants were generally larger than controls. This is the opposite of previous studies that found mutations in MC4R in humans are associated with a dominant form of obesity (Vaisse et al., 1998; Yeo et al., 1998; Hinney et al., 1999). Similar to our results with channel catfish, chickens with bi-allelic SNPs in the G54C locus of the MC4R gene were larger than heterozygous mutants and wild-type chickens, while heterozygotes were smaller than wild-type chickens (Li and Li, 2006). Ortega-Azorin (2012) found a thir genetic mechanism in play for MC4R mutants, as there was an additive effect of human MC4R polymorphisms on appetite, while Kim et al. (2004; 2006) showed that additive action of MC4R may influence growth and fat deposition in pigs. In channel catfish, it appears that only one functional copy of the MC4R wild type allele is necessary for normal growth.

The improved growth indicates that the use of gene edited MC4R channel catfish could be beneficial for commercial farms. Catfish farming and production in the United States peaked in 2003, dramatically declined from 2007-2012 and has been gradually increasing since that time (Hanson and Sites, 2015; Torrans and Ott, 2018; FAO, 2020). Gene editing presents a valuable tool to increase profitability, sustainability and industry growth. There are, however, a number of ethical, logistical and regulatory hurdles for the MC4R mutant channel catfish to become applied commercially in the United States, as FDA currently regulates gene edited animals. The improvement of gene editing technologies, greater understanding of its effects and the commercial success of genetically improved organisms, including Aquabounty' s AquaAdvantage salmon make this technology a viable option in the near future. By combining MC4R gene editing with other genetic techniques, such as selection, crossbreeding and hybridization, it is likely possible to achieve even greater growth results, shorten the grow-out period as well as select for multiple traits. With an increasing human population and declining natural resources, all solutions should be evaluated to determine the most efficient and sustainable methods of food production.

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Example 3—Effect of Simultaneous Knockout of MC4R Gene and Knock-In of Elongase Gene on Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus 1. Introduction

Catfish production constituted approximately 68% of the total domestic aquaculture production in 2015 (NOAA, 2016). However, catfish production has had more than a 50% reduction from 2003 (Hanson and Sites, 2015). The factors that caused the decline of catfish industry included intense competition from imported products from Asia, increased feed and fuel costs, and fish disease control problems (Wagner et al., 2002; FAO, 2020).

Growth and feed conversion efficiency are basic and important traits affecting production costs and profitability. In catfish farming, feed is 60% of the variable cost (Robinson and Li, 2015). Feed conversion is also important to optimize for environmental reasons, both in resource use and greenhouse gas emissions (Hasan and Soto, 2017). Growth rate and feed conversion efficiency are highly correlated, especially in fast growing genotypes compared to slower growing genotypes (Dunham, 2011).

Surveys indicate that consumers in China, the US and globally are likely to be more receptive to genetically engineered (GE) food if it lowers food costs or if the GE food is of enhanced nutritional quality (Curtis et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2010). Thus, one major objective of the current study is to enhance the nutritional quality of catfish through genetic engineering by improving omega-3 fatty acid (FA) levels.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

The long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) have significant nutritional benefits in humans (Lauritzen et al. 2001). They are necessary for important biological processes of humans, such as lipid metabolism regulation, growth development stimulation, anticancer properties, anti-aging properties, immunoregulation, promoting cardiovascular health, aiding in weight loss, among others (Saunders et al., 2013). The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada recommend 500 mg/day of EPA+DHA (Kris-Etherton et al., 2007). The long chain PUFAs are predominantly derived from marine fish. However, global capture of wild fish is currently in decline due to overfishing and environmental problems, leading to long chain PUFAs being less available.

Farmed fish could serve as an alternative source for EPA/DHA. However, most freshwater fish are unable to naturally synthesize long chain PUFAs, although they can convert the medium chain length into long chain ones to a greater or lesser extent depending on the species (Wang et al., 2014). This limits which aquaculture species provide the added health benefit of high levels of Ω-3 FAs (Wang et al. 2014). Catfish lack an efficient endogenous pathway for converting the short/medium chain fatty acids into long-chain PUFAs, such as EPA and DHA, and subsequently have Ω-3 FA levels 7-12 times less than Ω-3 rich fish such as salmon (Wall et al., 2010).

Generation of fish lines capable of synthesizing EPA/DHA fatty acids from their feeds is a feasible solution. This might be achieved by overexpressing genes encoding enzymes involved in EPA/DHA biosynthesis. Fatty acid desaturases and elongases are among the key enzymes for the biosynthesis of PUFAs (Meesapyodsuk et al., 2007). Among them, Δ6-, Δ5- and Δ4-desaturases and elongase are membrane-bound desaturases and fatty acid metabolic enzymes, which behave as important factors in EPA and DHA biosynthesis (Simopoulos, 2002). Δ5-desaturase uses eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, 20:4n-3) as a substrate and allows the insertion of a double bond to produce EPA. The ETA fatty acid substrate is chain elongated (by elongases) from octadecatetraenoic acid (18:4n-3), a product of Δ6-desaturation of α-linolenic acid. Further, DHA is synthesized from EPA by the sequential chain elongation to docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5n-3) and then to 24:5n-3, followed by a Δ6-desaturation to 24:6n-3, which is finally retroconverted by peroxisomes to DHA (Sprecher, 2000). Alternatively, Δ4-desaturase can convert DPA directly into DHA. The insertion of a single transgene generally increased Ω-3 FA production 10-30%, sometimes as much as a 2× increase for some omega-3 fatty acids (but a simultaneous decrease for others).

Previous work has accomplished a high rate of targeted gene insertion. For example, 37% of fish integrated a masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase transgene into exon 2 of luteinizing hormone (LH) gene of channel catfish (De et al., in preparation) using a modification of CRISPR/Cas9 termed ‘Two-Hit by gRNA and Two-Oligos with a Targeting Plasmid’ (2H2OP) (Yoshimi et al. 2016) with a great reduction in mosaicism. All 13 tissues tested across 3 individuals contained the transgene. Huang et al., (2021) generated multiple families of F1 β-actin-Δ 5 transgenic channel catfish. Desaturase F1 channel catfish showed a 1.11-fold increase in n-3 fatty acid levels measured as a change in ALA, DHA, and EPA compared to control counterparts. Levels of n-6 fatty acids, LA, AA, and DGA, decreased 1.11-fold in transgenic individuals. Individually, n-3 fatty acids ALA and DHA increased by 44.3% and 13.2% respectively. Precursors to n-6 delta5-desaturation, LA and DGA, decreased 13.2% and 11.9% respectively. Significant increases were seen on a mg/g weight basis for EPA, DHA, total HUFA.

Average coefficient of variation, on a mg/g wet weight basis, was calculated across all fatty acids between control and desaturase fish in terms of variation between individual fish (Huang et al., 2021). Desaturase fish had an average variation in fatty acid levels of 7% while controls showed increased variation with a CV of 22%. Significance between the two variances in fatty acid profiles was calculated and the variance of the fatty acids of the controls was higher than that of the transgenic individuals.

MCR4

The central melanocortin pathway regulates energy homeostasis in vertebrates as well as somatic growth and feed efficiency. Natural mutations of MC4R in fish can affect growth. In the swordtail fish, Xiphophorous nigrensis and X. multilineatus, small and large male morphs point to a single locus encoding MC4R (Smith et al., 2015). Large male morphs in this species result from multiple copies of mutant forms of the receptor, at the Y chromosome-encoded P locus, that appear to function in a dominant negative fashion, blocking activity of the wild-type receptor.

Copy number variants of the MC4R gene have a dramatic effect on the onset of puberty in Xiphophorus, but in the closely related species, medaka, Oryzias latipes, MC4R had no effect on reproduction or puberty, and the knock-out of MC4R retarded embryonic development (Liu et al., 2019). In contrast, in vitro studies on the anadromous fish, spotted scat, Scatophagus argus revealed that MC4R regulates gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) as well as follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) both directly and indirectly (by affecting the expression of GnRH) (Jiang et al., 2017). These results indicate that mutations in the MC4R gene may lead to infertility.

This Example demonstrates simultaneous knock out of the MC4R gene while inserting masu salmon elongase (Evol2) transgene driven by the common carp β-actin promotor (ccβA-msEvol2) into channel catfish. After successful mutation, zygosity effects on growth rate was evaluated. Mutation rate, growth rate, survival, and gene expression at different target sites were compared. Finally, fatty acid levels in mutants and controls were determined and compared.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Preparation of sgRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 System

A common carp β-actin promoter (Accession ID: M24113.1) was used to drive the expression of masu salmon elongase gene (Accesion ID: KC847063.1). An antifreeze polyA terminator from ocean pout, Zoarces americanus (Accession ID: 565567.1) was used to terminate transcription. This synthetic construct (ccβA-msEvol2), totaling 9,267bp, was built by GenScript (USA Inc., Piscataway, N.J. 08854, USA). Two sets of two CRISPR short guide RNAs (sgRNA) plasmids were designed, targeting the coding region in exon one of the MC4R gene in channel catfish and the non-coding region adjacent to the PAM sequence of the transgene. The corresponding ccβA-msEvol2 transgene was designed to contain two arms, upstream and downstream, for homologous recombination, matching the cuts created by the sgRNA. sgRNAs and ssODNs were constructed for 2H2OP insertion of ccβA-msEvol2 into MC4R locus. Each of the oligos and plasmid was reconstituted using DNase/RNase Free water to 10 mM. To create template for sgRNA synthesis, the three oligos were used to were synthesize double stranded DNA (dsDNA) by mixing 25 μl 2× EconoTaq Plus Master Mix (Lucigen), 12.5 μl Universal Primer, and 12.5 μl gene-specific oligonucleotide.

PCR cycling was carried out with initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 5 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 50° C. for 30 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 30 sec; 20 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, extension at 72° C. for 20 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The Taq Polymerase was then inactivated using 4.8μ1 of 0.5M EDTA and incubated at 75° C. for 20 min. The PCR product was confirmed using 1% agarose gel. The sgRNA was synthesized using the Maxiscript T7 Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), following the manufacture guidelines. A mix of 2 μl dH2O, 10 μl dsDNA template (created by PCR as described above), 2 μl 10× buffer, 1 μl ATP, 1 μl CTP, 1 μl GTP, 1 μl UTP and 2 μl Enzyme Mix was incubated at 37° C. for 90 min. The solution was cleared of DNA contamination by adding 1 μl of Turbo DNase I, vortexing briefly and incubating at 37° C. for 15 min. The magnesium ions were chelated by adding 5 μl of 0.5M EDTA. The Turbo DNase I was inactivated by heating the solution at 75° C. for 10 min. The obtained sgRNAs were purified using Zymo RNA Clean and Concentrator kit (Zymo Research). The sgRNAs were stored in −80° C. freezer.

The Cas9 protein was acquired from PNA Bio (3541 Old Conejo Rd, Newbury Park, Calif. 91320) and reconstituted in dH20 to a concentration of 1 mg/ml. The ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid was reconstituted to 250 ng/μl. Each of the ssODNs were reconstituted to 100 ng/μl. Twenty minutes prior to fertilizing the eggs, two sets of injection solutions were prepared by mixing 2 μl (200 ng) of each pair of ssODN, 1 μl ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid (125 ng), 1 μl ccβA-msEvol2 sgRNA (300 ng), 1 μl MC4R-(A or D) sgRNA (300 ng), 2 μl Cas9 and 2 μl phenol red (10%) to a total volume of 11 μl.

2.2. Brood Stock Husbandry, Selection and Spawning

Brood stock were cultured in 0.04-ha earthen ponds averaging 1-meter in depth. They were fed a 32 percent protein catfish pellet at 1-2% of their body weight five days per week. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 3 mg/L using a ½ horsepower surface aerator (Air-O-Lator).

The Kansas strain of channel catfish was chosen as broodstock due to their superior growth and fry output when induced by injection of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogs (LHRHa). Individuals were chosen based on their health and secondary sexual characteristics. Males with well-developed papilla and large, muscular heads that were wider than the rest of their bodies were chosen. Dark coloring and scarring from territorial fighting were also signs of quality males in reproductive condition. Females with soft, well-rounded abdomen that were wider than their head, and a swollen urogenital opening were chosen. Broodstock were minimally handled and kept in tanks for as short a time as possible to reduce stress.

Males were terminated by a percussive blow to the head followed by pithing. The body cavity was opened carefully with a scalpel, ensuring not to pierce any organs. Testes were removed using tweezers and/or scissors and washed in a weigh boat with 0.9 percent saline using bottled distilled water, removing any blood or tissue. Excess water was drained and the testes weighed before macerating the testes using scissors to release sperm. The homogenized testes were then filtered into a 50 mL Falcon tube using a 100-micron screen. The sperm was then diluted with 0.9 percent saline solution to a maximum of 10 mL/gram of testes. Sperm concentration was tested using a Nanodrop 2000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and running a simple linear regression between sperm concentration and absorbance using the equation y=−2.450+0.1851nX (Adjusted R2=0.601) at 450 nm (Cuevas-Uribe & Tiersch, 2011). Motility was analyzed under a 10× light microscope while sperm count was checked under 40× magnification. Ideally, sperm was used immediately, but could be stored at 4° C. for one week, with declining quality or up to two weeks with the addition of gentamycin at a concentration of 1 mg/mL sperm solution.

Females were weighed and gently placed in labeled 32 mm mesh bags. The spawning bags were then placed in a flow through holding tank so that the fish was fully submerged, ensuring that water quality was ideal with dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L. A 14-gauge implanter was loaded with 100 μg/kg body weight of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) implant. The needle was then inserted at a 45-degree angle ventrally adjacent to the pelvic fin and the implant was inserted. The ovulation time was predicted based on the degree-hours according to Phelps et al. (2007). Water temperature ranged from 26-28° C. Females were checked 36 hours after LHRHa injection and every four hours after that until ovulation. Once a female began ovulating, indicated by eggs visible on the bag, she was carefully transferred into a tank with 100 mg/L buffered tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) with equal parts sodium bicarbonate until completely anesthetized. Prior to this time, a thin layer of vegetable shortening, Crisco, was used to coat several 20 cm diameter metal egg collection pans. The fish was then dipped in fresh water to wash off the MS-222 and gently dried with a towel. A thick layer of vegetable shortening was applied around the urogenital opening, including the pelvic fins to prevent sticking of the eggs during stripping. The female was hand stripped into the greased pan by gently applying pressure on the abdomen from the anterior end of the abdomen posteriorly towards the vent. Eggs would usually flow freely, well rounded and golden in color, with minimal blood. The stripping ensured that the eggs could not contact freshwater, which can activate the eggs. Eggs were then covered with another spawning pan to maintain moisture and transported to the molecular laboratory.

Approximately 200-300 eggs were transferred to a greased pan for fertilization. Approximately 3 mL of sperm solution was added to the eggs and mixed gently with fingertips. Fresh water was added to barely cover the eggs in order to activate the sperm and eggs and the water was swirled to form a single layer and prevent sticking. After two minutes, the eggs should be fertilized, and three more cm of water was added to the eggs and the eggs were left to harden for 15 minutes.

While the embryos were hardening, 5-10 μl of the Cas9/sgRNA/phenol red mixture was loaded into 1.0 mm OD borosilicate glass capillary microinjection needles using a microloader. The tips of the needles were opened by breaking the end with a scalpel. The needle was then inserted into the micropipette holder to its deepest range and tightened, ensuring a tight seal. The compressed air cylinder was opened, and pressure was adjusted to 7000 kPa and 0.824 m³/hr using the pressure regulator. The injection volume was adjusted to 50n1 by manipulating the pressure, the length of injection and the needle diameter. Injection volume was measured by injecting a drop of mineral oil on a hemocytometer.

After 15 minutes 100-200 embryos were transferred in a single layer to a greased 100mm petri dish and covered with Holtfreter's solution (Table 16). The petri dish was placed on the stage of the microscope. In one smooth motion, the needle was lowered until it pierced the chorion and yolk, and the pedal of the microinjector was depressed, delivering the CRISPR solution, and withdrawing slowly. For best results, the solution was injected as close to the blastodisc as possible. When the blastodisc was not visible, the solution was spread throughout the embryo by depressing the pedal while simultaneously withdrawing the needle smoothly. To reduce mosaicism, embryos were injected between 15 min and 90 min post-fertilization, while they remained in the one cell stage. Injection controls were injected with 50 nl of phenol red, while non-inject controls were not injected.

Embryos were placed in four-liter tubs of Holtfreter's solution with 10 mg/L doxycycline kept at 27° C. with continuous aeration. The solution was changed, and dead embryos were removed daily. After about 5 days, or when the embryos were moving rapidly within the egg membrane and close to hatch, doxycycline treatment was discontinued. At 20 dph fry were moved to aquaria in recirculating systems until large enough to be PIT (Passive Integrated Transponders) tagged and moved to earthen ponds.

TABLE 16 Name of Material/ Catalog Equipment Type Company Number Comments/Description Reproboost ® Hormone Center of Marine Biotechnology Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone implant analog (LHRHa) for artificial spawning TRICAINE-S Anesthesia Western Chemical. Inc. For sedation of brood stock fish during hormone injection and egg stripping. Phenol red Reagent Sigma-Aldrich P0290 0.5%, sterile filtered Stereo Equipment Olympus 213709 For visualizing the eggs during microscope microinjection Microinjector Equipment ASI-Applied Model MPPI-3 For the delivery of the injection material into Scientific the embryos Instrumentation Micromanipulator Equipment ASI-Applied Model MM33 For holding and controlling the movement of Scientific the injection needle. Instrumentation Eppendorf Tool Eppendorf 5242956.003 For loading injection solution into Microloader microinjection needles. Vertical needle Equipment David Kopf Model 720 For pulling microinjection needles puller Instruments Borosilicate Tool Fisher Scientific 1 mm outer diameter (OD), for making glass microinjection needles. capillaries Petri dish Tool VWR 25384-302 For holding the embryos during the microinjection. Crisco ® Vegetable The J.M. Smucker Company For coating spawning pans and petri dishes. shortening Holtfreter's Reagent Lab Made 59 mM NaCl, 0.67 mM KCl, 2.4 mM solution NaHCO3, 0.76 mM CaCl2, 1.67 mM MgSO4 (Armstrong et al., 1989) to incubate the microinjected embryos till hatch. Doxycycline Antibiotic Letco Medical 690904 Added to Holtfreter's solution to 10 ppm to hyclate USP prevent bacterial infections. (monohydrate)

Table 16 shows the name, type of material, company, catalog number (if applicable) of materials and equipment used in microinjection protocol for CRISPR/Cas9 in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus.

2.3. Mutation Analysis

Pelvic fin-clip samples (10-20 mg) were collected in sterile 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes and kept in a −80° C. freezer until DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using proteinase K digestion and ethanol precipitation using the following protocol: fin clips were digested in 600 μl of cell lysis buffer (100 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris, 25 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) and 2.5 μl of proteinase K in a 55° C. hot water bath for 4-8 hours, with occasional vortexing. Protein was precipitated by adding 200 μl of protein precipitation solution (Qiagen, 19300 Germantown Road Germantown, Md. 20874), vortexed, stored on ice for 12 minutes and centrifuged for 8 minutes at 15,000 rcf. The supernatant containing DNA was then precipitated with isopropanol followed by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 15,000 rcf and finally washed twice with 75% ethanol by inverting gently 5-times before being dissolved in dH₂O. DNA concentration and purity was measured using a NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and concentration was adjusted to 500 ng/μl.

To determine the presence of the transgene, the primer set Evol2-F, Evol2-R (Table 15) was designed using Primer3plus to encapsulate all possible mutation sites in the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid. The Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) was used with 500 ng of genomic DNA. A Bio-Rad T100 Thermal Cycler was used to run PCR with an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 34 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 62° C. for 40 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 40 sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min. The PCR product was confirmed on a 1% TAE Tris base, acetic acid and EDTA agarose gel. The knock-in mutation was preliminarily identified by presence of the amplified DNA fragment.

The primer set MC4R-F, MC4R-R (Table 15) was designed using Primer3plus to encapsulate all possible mutation sites in the MC4R gene. The Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) was used with 500 ng of genomic DNA. A Bio-Rad T100 Thermal Cycler was used to run PCR with an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 34 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 62° C. for 40 sec with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, extension at 72° C. for 40 sec; and final extension at 72° C. for 10 min.

The PCR product was confirmed on a 1% TAE Tris base, acetic acid and EDTA agarose gel. The PCR product from the treatment fish was mixed with PCR product from a wild type control of the same family at a 1:1 ratio. The combined product was then hybridized in a BioRad Thermocycler using an initial denaturing at 95° C. for 3 min; 85° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 75° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 65° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 55° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 45° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 35° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec, 25° C. for 1 min with a ramp speed of −0.2° C./sec.

The Surveyor® mutation detection kit (Integrated DNA Technologies) was used to detect mutations. Hybridized products were mixed with Nuclease S, Enhancer S, MgCl2 and Reaction Buffer (2) according to kit instructions and incubated at 42° C. for one hour. The digested products were separated on a 1.5 percent TBE (Tris borate EDTA) agarose gel and compared with that of control samples.

To confirm and identify the mutations, positive samples were sequenced using the TA cloning method. The largest individuals from each treatment that repeatedly were confirmed as mutants using Surveyor Analysis (Fisher Scientific) were sequenced. First, genomic DNA from three mutants per treatment was amplified with PCR using Expand High Fidelity^(PLUS) PCR System (Roche) using the above protocol. The PCR product was verified using a 1 percent TAE agarose gel and cloned into the TOPO® TA Cloning® Kit (Invitrogen) with 20 clones per sample and sent to MCLabs for sequencing. Finally, the resulting sequences were interpreted using the MAFFT sequence alignment tool.

TABLE 15 SEQ ID Oligo sequence (5′ to 3′) Oligo name NO: AAAAGCACCGACTCGGTGCCACTTTTTCAAGTTGA Universal Primer 100 TAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTA GCTCTAAAAC taatacgactcactataGGGATGGCGCTGATCACC MC4R-A 101 AGgattagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGAAAGGAACTCGGAGT MC4R-B 102 Cgattagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCAGGATGGTGAGCGT MC4R-C 103 CAgttttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGTGGTGGCGTTCGGTCC MSTN1 104 GAgattagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGCGAGGCGCAGTGTTC MSTN2 105 AGgtatagagctagaa taatacgactcactataGGGTCGAGCAGCTGCTGC MSTN3 106 ACgttttagagctagaa GGAGATGGAGGACACGGAAG MC4R-F 107 GAGACATGAAGCAGACGCAATA MC4R-R 108 taatacgactcactataGTGATGGCGCTGATCACC MC4R-A2-sense 109 AGgttttagagctagaa taataegactentataCGGGATGCAGCATGCACAC MC4R-D-antisense 110 Cgttttagagctagaa taatacgactcactataCTTGTCTGTAAGCGGATG PUC57 Vector 111 CCgttttagagctagaa TATCGAACGCGACAGAAACGGCTGTGATGGCGCTG BsalElvol2_ssODN1 112 ATCACGCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCG TCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAG BsalElvol2_ssODN2 113 CGGATCAGCGGCAACCTGACCATCTCTGGAGACGT CGTGAAAAGC GAGGAGGTCTTGCGGATATGAACGTGTCGGAGCAC BsalElvol2_ssODN3 114 CACGGGCCGGGAGCAGACAAGCCCGTCAGGGCGCG TCAGCGGGTG GCAGCTCCCGGAGACGGTCACAGCTTGTCTGTAAG BsalElvol2_ssODN4 115 CGGATGATGCAGCATGCACACCGGAACCACAGCCT GGGCGTGCAG ACTCCTCTCTGAGACCTGAC EX1-F 116 AGTTAGGCTATGAAGCAGTAGT EX1-R 117 CGAAATCCGTTCCTTTTTACTG Evol2-F 118 CTGGCCTGTTCCTCATGTATTT Evol2-R 119

Primers used to amplify partial sequences of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, oligonucleotides to target specified regions for CRISPR/Cas9 cleavage and single-stranded oligo donor nucleotide (ssODN). Universal primer was used to bind oligonucleotides to Cas-9 protein. Red letters indicate binding site to target gRNAs. MC4R-A, MC4R-B, MC4R-C, MC4R-A2-sense and MC4R-D-antisense were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MSTN-1, MSTN-2 and MSTN-3 were all used to target various loci in exon 1 of the channel catfish MC4R gene. MC4R-ALL-1F and MC4R-ALL-1R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. EX1-F and EX1-R were used to amplify DNA segments flanking the target sites for guide RNAs in the catfish MC4R gene. PUC57 Vector was used to amplify a partial sequence of the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid containing the masu salmon, Onchorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp β-actin promoter. BsalElvol2_ssODN1 and BsalElvol2_ssODN2 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-A2-sense gRNA to facilitate homologous directed repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene. BsalElvol2_ssODN3 and BsalElvol2_ssODN4 were used to flank the cut site associated with the MC4R-D-antisense gRNA to facilitate homologous directed repair (HDR) in the MC4R gene.

2.4 Fatty Acid Analysis

Muscle was sampled from 3 fish containing the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid and mutated at the MC4R gene, 3 fish containing the MC4R mutation and not the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid and 3 control fish with no mutation. Muscle samples were taken immediately after euthanizing the individual. They were then prepared for lipid extraction by first grinding into a slurry with a coffee grinder. Two grams of ground tissue was homogenized per extraction using a handheld tissue homogenizer until tissue was sufficiently homogenized. Lipid extraction was performed using the chloroform-methanol protocol from Folch et al. (1957) and done in triplicate for each sample. Extracts in hexane were kept in 2 ml borosilicate glass vials with PTFE caps and stored at −20° C. until they could be injected into a gas chromatograph (GC-MS7890A). The concentration of the fatty acid was measured using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS, Agilent Technologies 7890A GC with 5975C MS) equipped with an DB-1701 GC column. Helium was used as the carrier gas. The initial temperature of the oven was set at 100 ° C. for 5 min, followed with a ramp of 4 ° C./min to reach 250 ° C. and then held for 10 min. The detector was kept at 225° C. Peaks were identified and quality check of the resulting spectra, and calculation of concentrations and was done by comparing sample retention times to a standard mix (Supelco® C4-24 Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) Mix; Lot: LRAC7954).

2.5 Culture and Growth

Fry from each genetic type were stocked into 3-replicate 50 L aquaria in recirculating systems for growth experiments. Fish were kept at a density of 1 fish/L. Fish in each aquarium were fed ad-libitum with Aquamax powdered and pelleted fish diets and catfish diets with the appropriate fatty acid content. Based on our previous results with transgenic desaturase common carp (Cheng et al., 2014), the diets needed adequate precursors, Ω-6 fatty acids, for the desaturase transgenic catfish to produce Ω-omega-3 fatty acids in the muscle. In fact, diets high in Ω-3 fatty acids did not result in more Ω-3 fatty acids in the muscle of desaturase transgenics, but diets high in Ω-6 fatty acids did allow the desaturase transgenic carp to produce elevated Ω-3 fatty acids.

Feed size was adjusted as the fish grew. Fry were fed Purina® AquaMax® powdered starter feed until they were large enough to eat Purina® AquaMax® 100. Both feeds contained 50% protein. All fish were fed every day to satiation. The fish were sampled at 6-months post hatch.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

To calculate differences in body weight between ccβA-msEvol2 knockout/MC4R knock in mutants, MC4R knockout mutants and controls, a one-way ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparisons test were performed using R programming language (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria). In cases where different treatments were kept in separate aquaria at varying densities, a regression based on density was calculated, and weights were adjusted accordingly before running the statistical analysis. Differences in mutation rate were calculated with logistic regression using R programming language.

3. Results 3.1. Growth

A total of 19 P1 Elongase transgenic MC4R knock-out channel catfish (ccβA-msEvol2), 33 Non-inject control (NIC) and 31 Inject-control (Inj-Cntrl) were generated in 2019. CcβA-msEvol2 mutants were 56% and 14.59 g larger than NIC fish (p=0.001) at 6-months post hatch (FIG. 16; Table 18). ccβA-msEvol2 mutants were 29% and 9.27 g larger than Inj-Cntrl fish (p=0.056). At 6-months post hatch, ccβA-msEvol2 mutants were 41.81% and 12.01 g larger than controls (p=0.005).

TABLE 17 Mean Body Weight (g) at 6-months post hatch N Mean SD CV NIC 33 26.15 10.74 41.05 IC 31 31.47 15.04 47.81 Evol2 19 40.74 15.52 38.10 CNTRL 64 28.73 13.17 45.85 Evol2 19 40.74 15.52 38.10

Table 17 shows mean weights (grams), sample size (N), standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) of Non-Inject Control (NIC), Inject-Control (Inj-Cntrl), overall controls (CNTRL) and P1 ccβA-msEvol2 transgenic MC4R knock-out (Evol2) channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, at 6-months post hatch. The ccβA-msEvol2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Mutants and controls were kept in separate 50 L aquaria at a maximum density of 1 fish/L and fed daily to satiation. Overall, at 6-months post hatch, ccβA-msEvol2 mutants were 41.81% and 12.01 g larger than controls (p=0.005). A paired t-test was used to compare treatments.

3.2. Mutation Rate

A total of 53 fish survived microninjection of CRISPR/Cas9, ccβA-msEvol2 transgene and the MC4R-D sgRNA. A total of 13/53 (25%) had a mutation in the MC4R target site and 3/53 (6%) integrated the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid (Table 18). None of the 53 MC4R-D fish had both a mutation in the MC4R gene and insertion of the ccβA-msEvol2 transgene. A total of 39 fish survived microninjection of CRISPR/Cas9, ccβA-msEvol2 transgene and the MC4R-A sgRNA. A total of 36/39 (92%) fish had a mutation in the MC4R target site and 21/39 (54%) integrated the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid at the MC4R target site. Nearly half (49%) of the 39 MC4R-A fish had both a mutation in the MC4R gene and insertion of the ccβA-msEvol2 transgene. A single band observed using the Evol2 primer set indicates integration of the ccβA-msEvol2 transgene (FIG. 17). Multiple bands using the MC4R primer set corresponded to expected cut sites in MC4R gene (FIG. 18). Each positive result was confirmed with a second gel. MC4R-A generated a greater rate of knockout of MC4R (p=1.14e-7) and knock-in of ccβA-msEvol2 (p=1.12e-5) than MC4R-D. Sequencing indicates insertion with complete fidelity into the channel catfish genome.

TABLE 18 MC4R KO ccβA-msEvol2 KI Mutation Rate Mutation Rate Both Homozygosity KO MC4R-D 25% (13/53) 6% (3/53) 0% (0/53) 38% (5/13) MC4R-A 92% (36/39) 54% (21/39) 49% (19/39) 69% (25/36) p-value 1.14e−7 1.12E−05 0.056

Table 18 shows mutation rates of two gRNA (MC4R-D and MC4R-A; Table 1 (Example 1)) targeting different loci in exon one of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, for CRISPR/Cas9 cleavage and simultaneous insertion of the ccβA-msEvol2 plasmid into the cut site. P1 fish were generated in 2020. The ccβA-msEvol2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Approximately 50 nl of solution, composed of 1 μg/μl Cas9 protein (1 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA1 (0.5 μl), 400 ng/μl sgRNA2 (0.5 μl), 50 ng/μl donor plasmid (1 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN1 (0.5 μl), 100 ng/μl ssODN2 (0.5 μl) and 60% phenol red (1 μl), was injected into each embryo close to the blastodisc 15 min after fertilization using a glass capillary needle. Knockout and knock-in are denoted by KO and KI, respectively. Logistic regression was used to determine significant difference in mutation rates between MC4R-D and MC4R-A.

3.3. Fatty Acid Levels

There were no statistically significant differences in EPA (p=0.203) and DHA (p=0.380) levels between any of the groups (p=0.203) (Table 19). However, observed mean EPA levels in MC4R mutants and ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutants were 94.12% and 92.16% higher than controls, respectively (FIG. 19). Mean observed DHA levels for MC4R mutants and ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutants were 21.37% and 32.82% higher than controls, respectively. Overall observed, levels of EPA+DHA were 50.00% and 5.72% higher in ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R fish than controls and MC4R fish.

TABLE 19 Mean Fatty Acid Content in Muscle (mg/g) Amount of fish (g) required EPA + to provide EPA DHA DHA 500 mg N Mean SD CV Range Mean SD CV Range Mean Range EPA + DHA CNTRL 3 0.51 0.33 64.92 0.14-0.72 1.31 0.60 45.55 1.16-1.69 1.82 1.62-1.88 275.17 MC4R 3 0.99 0.52 52.32 0.93-1.06 1.59 0.59 36.93 1.29-2.15 2.58 2.35-3.09 193.94 Evol2 3 0.98 0.75 76.35 0.55-2.34 1.74 0.71 40.56 1.39-1.95 2.73 2.35-4.23 183.45

Table 19 shows mean eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) content (mg) per gram of muscle tissue in control (CNTRL), melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) knockout and MC4R knockout +ccβA-msEvol2 transgene (Evol2) knock-in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. The ccβA-msEvol2 transgene containing masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou, elongase gene driven by the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, beta-actin promoter was inserted into the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene using the 2-hit 2-oligo with plasmid (2H2OP) method. Muscle was sampled from 3 fish from each treatment. There was no significant difference in EPA or DHA levels between any of the groups using ANOVA (p=0.203; p=0.380).

4. Discussion

In this Example, the effects of microinjection of sgRNA targeting exon 1 of the channel catfish melanocortin-4 receptor gene in conjunction with ccβA-msEvol2 elongase plasmid, ssODNs and Cas9 protein on mutation rate, growth and omega-3 content were investigated. Efficient mutagenesis was achieved. There was high variability in mutation rate between both target sites with 49% of fish microinjected with MC4R-A having both the elongase insertion and MC4R deletion compared to 0% of MC4R-D fish. Microinjection of MC4R-A produced a mutation rate in the MC4R gene of 92%. This is far higher than the 33% mutation rate achieved in our lab in 2017 using the same sgRNAs (see Example 2). The two major differences in protocol between this study and previous experiments are the 2H2OP method and simultaneous insertion of the ccβA-msEvol2 transgene. The previous experiment used CRISPR/Cas9 with sgRNAs specifically designed to knockout the MC4R gene without adding in a transgene. Growth and overall omega-3 content was 45% and 50% higher, respectively, in MC4R/ccβA-msEvol2 mutants than in controls.

In regard to mutation rate, Yoshimi et al., (2016) reported knockout mutations of 82.4% for the Rosa26 locus and integration of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) of 17.6% in rats, Rattus norvegicus. The 2H2OP method, designed by Yoshimi et al. (2016), uses ssODNs as donor templates to facilitate homologous recombination (HR) rather than non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to repair the double stranded break (DSB). NHEJ is the faster and typically more favored repair mechanism and is far more mutagenic, making it desirable for generating knockouts Mao et al., 2008. However, by introducing a plasmid with ssODNs homologous to the cut site, the gap can quickly be filled with the plasmid, thereby preventing reconstitution of the original sequence (Yoshimi et al., 2016). Additionally, the 5′ degradation of ssODNs by exonucleases and removal by helicase in the 2H2OP method can lead to incomplete repair and cause a high rate of indel mutations (Yoshimi et al., 2016). The insertion of an entire transgene virtually guarantees complete knockout of the target gene and could cause greater phenotypic changes than smaller indels.

Growth was 45% higher in MC4R/ccβA-msEvol2 mutants than in controls. Previous MC4R knockout channel catfish generated in our lab in 2017 were 18.87% larger than controls at a similar size (˜50 g) to this Example (see Example 2) and 56% and 37% larger than controls at 600 g and 3 kg, respectively, in initial aquaria experiments in 2016 (Dunham, personal communication). The much larger gains achieved with MC4R/ccβA-msEvol2 at the small fingerling stage could be due to pleiotropic effects of the transgene, a greater truncation of the MC4R protein, leading to greater phenotypic gain, or family effects. This faster growth makes MC4R/ccβA-msEvol2 mutants a potentially high value genotype for commercial aquaculture. While these results are promising, the experiment was not performed under commercial settings and future research should evaluate whether there is a genotype x age or genotype x environment interaction. Additionally, as these fish were P1 generation and were very likely mosaics, future research should evaluate performance in the F1 generation and the role of zygosity in growth.

Observed omega-3 fatty acid levels were increased in both MC4R mutants and ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutants when compared to controls, although the differences were not statistically significant. Observed EPA levels in MC4R mutants and ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutants were 94.12% and 92.16% higher than controls respectively. Observed levels of DHA levels in MC4R mutants and ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutants were 21.37% and 32.82% higher than controls respectively. Overall observed levels of EPA+DHA were 50.00% and 5.72% higher in ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R fish than controls and MC4R fish. This indicates that both MC4R and elongase play a key role in omega-3 synthesis. As the MC4R mutation alone caused as high an increase in EPA as ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R together, it is possible that the increases in EPA were due to MC4R knockout rather than ccβA-msEvol2 insertion. Fish typically have higher levels of DHA than EPA, and elongase plays a more essential role in DHA synthesis than in EPA synthesis, potentially explaining the relatively larger increase in DHA in ccβA-msEvol2 fish.

To obtain the recommended 500mg of EPA+DHA per day, the consumer would need to eat approximately 275 g of wild-type catfish. A typical serving of fish is 112 g (Kris-Etherton et al., 2009). Thus, a consumer would need to eat nearly three servings to reach recommended levels. With the Evol2/MC4R genotype, a consumer would need to eat 1.64 servings of catfish per day to reach recommended levels of omega-3 fatty acids, half that of the wild type. While farmed Evol2/MC4R catfish still have EPA and DHA levels far below those of fatty marine fish such as salmon and tuna, they also have fewer of the issues associated with these fish including high mercury levels, microplastics and ecological disruption (Jackson et al., 2001; Burger et al., 2005; Lusher et al., 2017; Zupo et al., 2019).

The improved growth and omega-3 levels indicate that the use of ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R channel catfish could be beneficial for commercial farms. Catfish farming and production in the United States peaked in 2003, dramatically declined from 2007-2012 and has been gradually increasing since that time (Hanson and Sites, 2015; Torrans and Ott, 2018; FAO, 2020). Gene editing and transgenesis presents a valuable tool to increase profitability, sustainability and industry growth. There are, however, a number of ethical, logistical and regulatory hurdles for the ccβA-msEvol2/MC4R mutant channel catfish to become applied commercially in the United States, as FDA currently regulates gene edited animals. The improvement of gene editing technologies, greater understanding of its effects and the commercial success of genetically improved organisms, including Aquabounty's AquAdvantage salmon make this technology a viable option in the near future. By combining transgenesis and gene editing with other genetic techniques, such as selection, crossbreeding and hybridization, it is likely possible to achieve even greater growth results, shorten the grow-out period as well as select for multiple traits. With an increasing human population and declining natural resources, all solutions should be evaluated to determine the most efficient and sustainable methods of food production.

References for Example 3

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Dunham, R. A. (2011). Aquaculture and fisheries biotechnology: genetic approaches. CABI Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK

FAO (2020). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en

Hanson, T. & Sites, D. (2015). 2014 U.S. Catfish Database. MSU AEC Information Report. Retrieved from http://www.agecon.msstate.edu/whatwedo/budgets/docs/catfish2014.pdf

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Example 4—Combining Ability for Body Weight of Fingerling and Food Size Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, Female X Blue Catfish, I. furcatus, Male Hybrid Progeny 1. Introduction

The basis for genetic improvement through breeding is means and variance (Bernardo, 2002). Assuming higher values of a trait are desired, a high mean for that trait in the starting population provides a head start and ensures that the desirable alleles are present. A large genetic variance allows for greater potential for genetic gain. Having a high mean and genetic variance are slightly contradictory however, as removing the bottom 50% of a population would increase the mean but decrease genetic variability. It is therefore essential to choose a population with a mean and variance that is appropriate for that particular genetic enhancement program. Choosing a high performing strain results in the best ending genetic product when conducting selection or utilizing other genetic enhancement program (Dunham and Smitherman 1983 a, Dunham 2011). The Kansas strain is the oldest and one of the fastest growing domestic strains of channel catfish (Dunham and Smitherman 1983a, 1984), perhaps likely due to long domestication for growth, and some of the experimental fish were further growth enhanced through multiple generations of selection (Rezk et al. 2003, Dunham 2007, Dunham et al. 2008) . Utilizing the best performing strain or line is an important first step in a genetic enhancement program.

The genetic basis of interspecific hybridization is dominance, epistasis and overdominance. Combining ability is a measurement of how well strains, breeds, lines or species combine to produce heterosis (Griffing, 1956). General combining ability (GCA) informs the breeder which parents should be used in breeding programs by quantifying the additive genetic effects (Costa et al., 2018). Specific combining ability (SCA) can measure non-additive effects, such as dominance epistasis and heterosis and is useful in determining which genetic combinations perform better or worse than expectations based on the average performance of the parents. Some strains may show sexual dimorphism for combining ability and therefore reciprocal crossbreeds often exhibit different performance. In the case of ictalurid catfish, this is likely due to genetic maternal effects. In channel catfish for example, Auburn strain females have good combining ability, while Auburn strain males do not (Dunham and Smitherman, 1983b). This maternal effect on combining ability is also apparent in interspecific hybridization of ictalurids, as 42 interspecific catfish hybrids have been assessed with the two best performing hybrids having channel catfish as the female parent.

In general, interspecific hybridization programs are unsuccessful for aquaculture application. Even if the many reproductive isolating mechanisms are overcome, heterosis is rarely achieved. The most commercially valuable exception is the channel catfish female x blue catfish male hybrid. Of the 42 North American catfish hybrids tested, only the channel catfish x blue catfish hybrid shows improvement in growth, disease resistance, low dissolved oxygen tolerance, dressing percentage and seinability (Smitherman and Dunham, 1985). However, while this hybrid is the best genotype for aquaculture, reproductive mechanisms hindered commercial utilization for nearly 4 decades. Channel catfish x blue catfish hybrids grow from fingerling to food sized fish 18-100% percent faster than either parent (Yant et al., 1975; Dunham and Smitherman, 1987; Dunham et al. 1990). However, the success of the hybrid varies by parental genotype and combining ability of the parents. Other examples of fish hybrids with improved growth include silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix x bighead carp, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis black crappie, Pomoxis nigromaculatus x white crappie, Pomoxis annularis (Hooe et al., 1994), and African catfish, Clarias gariepinusi, x Vundu, Heterobranchus longifilis (Salami et al., 1993; Nwadukwe, 1995).

Combining ability is an important predictor that can be used to determine if selection, crossbreeding or reciprocal recurrent selection are good options to produce genetic gain. Progeny from two separate factorial mating designs of channel catfish female x blue male catfish showed high dam general combining ability, intermediate sire general combining abilities and low dam x sire specific combining ability for both growth and carcass yield (Bosworth and Waldbieser, 2014). The data indicates that the genetic variance for harvest weight and carcass yield of hybrid catfish was mostly additive.

A diallel design involves a group of individuals to be used as male parents and a group of individuals to be used as female parents. In a diallel design, each male is mated with each female and each female is mated with each male so that all possible combinations of offspring are produced. While being resource intensive, especially with large numbers of crosses, it is useful in identifying strains, families or individuals with high breeding values, identifying crosses with good combining ability and potentially improving multiple traits at once. It is essential to have replicates of each cross in relevant simulated commercial environments to determine whether there is a genotype environment interaction and determine the best crosses for a particular environment, if the germplasm will be commercialized. Simulated models indicate that fully factorial models are more efficient at generating long term genetic variability and genetic response when compared to partial factorial, nested and single pair matings (Dupont-Nivet et al., 2006; D'Agaro et al., 2007). A higher number of offspring per mating pair is preferred (D'Agaro et al., 2007). The major drawback to factorial breeding programs is the high resource cost to maintaining a large number of genotypes.

This Example examines combining ability for growth for fingerlings grown in aquaria and food fish cultured in earthen ponds for channel catfish female X blue catfish male hybrid catfish using a 6×6 diallel design, thereby allowing prediction of the bet potential genetic enhancement programs for growth improvement.

2. Materials and Methods

All experiments were conducted at the Fish Genetics Research Unit, E. W. Shell Fisheries Research Center, Auburn University, AL. All experimental protocols used in this experiment were approved by the Auburn University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) before the experiment was initiated and followed the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) protocols and guidelines.

2.1. Broodstock Husbandry

Broodstock were cultured in 0.04-ha earthen ponds averaging 1-meter in depth. They were fed a 32 percent protein catfish pellet at 1-2% of their body weight five days per week. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 3 mg/L using a ½ horsepower surface aerator (Air-O-Lator). Genotypes of fish are distinguished through various identification tools including Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) tags, and heat brands. Individuals were chosen for spawning based on their health and secondary sexual characteristics.

2.2. Mating Design

For determination of interspecific combining ability, channel catfish females with Kansas ancestry were mated with Rio Grande strain blue catfish males. In 2017, three female Kansas Random strain and three female Kansas Mix strain (six females total) were each paired in a 6×6 diallel design with six male Rio Grande blue catfish for a total of 36 pairings.

2.3. Spawning

Male blue catfish, with large, muscular heads that were wider than the rest of their bodies and well-developed papilla were chosen. Dark coloring and scarring from territorial fighting were also signs of quality males in reproductive condition. Females with soft, well-rounded abdomen that were wider than their head, and a swollen urogenital opening were chosen. Broodstock were minimally handled and kept in tanks for as short a period of time as possible to limit stress.

Males were euthanized by a percussive blow to the head followed by pithing. The body cavity was opened carefully with a scalpel, ensuring not to pierce any organs. Testes were removed using tweezers and/or scissors and washed in a weigh boat with 0.9 percent saline using bottled distilled water, removing any blood or tissue. The water was drained, and the testes weighed before macerating the testes using scissors to release sperm. The homogenized testes were then filtered into a 50 ml falcon tube using a 100-micron screen. The sperm was then diluted with 0.9 percent saline solution to a maximum of 10m1/ gram of testes. Sperm concentration was tested using a Nanodrop 2000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and running a simple linear regression between sperm concentration and absorbance using the equation y=−2.450+0.1851nX (Adjusted R2=0.601) at 450 nm (Cuevas-Uribe & Tiersch, 2011). Motility was analyzed under a 10× light microscope while sperm count was checked under 40× magnification.

Females were weighed and gently placed in labeled 32 mm mesh bags. The spawning bags were then placed in a flow through holding tank so that the fish was fully submerged, ensuring that water quality was ideal with dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L. A 14-gauge implanter was loaded with 100 μg/kg body weight of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) implant. The needle was then inserted at a 45-degree angle ventrally adjacent to the pelvic fin and the implant was inserted. The ovulation time was predicted based on the degree-hours according to Phelps et al. (2007). Water temperature ranged from 26-28° C. Females were checked 36 hours after LHRHa injection and every four hours after that until ovulation. Once a female began ovulating, indicated by eggs visible on the bag, she was carefully transferred into a tank with 100 mg/L buffered tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) with equal parts sodium bicarbonate until completely anesthetized. Prior to this time, a thin layer of vegetable shortening was used to coat several 20 cm diameter metal egg collection pans. The fish was then dipped in fresh water to wash off the MS-222 and gently dried with a towel. A thick layer of vegetable shortening, Crisco, was applied around the urogenital opening, including the pelvic fins to prevent sticking of the eggs during stripping. The female was hand stripped into the greased pan by gently applying pressure on the abdomen from the anterior end of the abdomen posteriorly towards the vent. Eggs would usually flow freely that were well-rounded and golden in color, with minimal blood. They were hand stripped ensuring no contact with freshwater, which can activate the eggs.

Approximately 3 mL of sperm solution was added to the eggs and mixed gently. Fresh water was added to barely cover the eggs to activate the sperm and eggs, and the water was swirled to accomplish fertilization. After two minutes, the eggs should be fertilized, and after an additional 3 minutes, the spawning pan with the eggs was carefully submerged in a hatching trough with flow through water and a slow drip of calcium chloride. The eggs were left to harden for 1 hour. After 1 hour of hardening, the eggs were transferred into a labeled mesh basket suspended just below the surface in a 600 L-hatching trough filled with flow through water and a slow drip of calcium chloride.

Paddlewheels were installed in the hatching troughs to circulate the water and gently agitate and aerate the eggs, mimicking the behavior of the male catfish parent. Water flow in the hatching troughs was maintained at ˜25 L/min, ensuring an exchange rate of 100%/25 min. Calcium chloride drips were placed at the upstream end of the hatching troughs to maintain hardness above 50 ppm. Dissolved oxygen was maintained above 5 ppm with compressed air and paddlewheels. Temperatures in hatching troughs were maintained between 24-28° C. Eggs were monitored daily for fungus growth. Treatment for fungus included manual removal of fungus and dead eggs and chemical treatment. Chemical treatments consisted of alternating 100 ppm formalin and 32 ppm copper sulfate static baths for 15 min every 8 hours. Chemical treatments were terminated 24 hours before expected hatch.

After about 5 days, or when the embryos are moving rapidly and close to hatch, fry catchers were placed around the mesh baskets to ensure newly hatched fry did not escape and mix within the tank. At the swim up stage, fry were transferred to 50 L aquaria in recirculating systems until large enough to be PIT (Passive Integrated Transponders) tagged and moved out to ponds. Water quality was measured twice per week in the recirculating system.

2.4. Grow Out and Evaluation

Pellet feed size was adjusted to a maximum of ¼ the size of the mouth as the fish grew. Fry were fed Purina® AquaMax® powdered starter feed until they were large enough to eat Purina® AquaMax® 100. Both feeds contained 50% protein. All fish were fed daily to satiation. Fish were weighed at 14 months, PIT tagged and stocked communally in a 0.04-ha pond at approximately 14,000 fish/ha. Fifteen fish per genetic type remained in the aquaria in the recirculating system. Fish were fed ad-libitum daily with 32% protein pelleted catfish feed. Fish were then harvested at 40-months post hatch, individually identified, weighed, sexed. During these growth trials any mortality due to disease was identified by family, genotype and sex, and the pathogen identified.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted using SAS version 9.4 (Cary, N.C., USA). Due to differential mortality in aquaria leading to differences in density, a regression between weight and density was calculated. The Proc Mixed function with a restricted estimation of likelihood was used to calculate the variance for the dam, sire, and dam x sire interactions and error.

General combining ability of the dams (GCA_(D)) equals the variance of the dams, calculated as the difference between the least squares means fitted for female parent effects in the model and the overall means of the progeny trial (Cotterill et al., 1986). Sire general combining ability (GCA_(S)) equals the variance of the sires. Specific combining ability, the proportion of variance due to the dam x sire interaction, was calculated as the means of the difference between the observed and predicted genetic values for each particular cross (Cotterill et al., 1986).

To compare the sources of variation in body weight, ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparisons test was performed using R programming language (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria). Differences in variances between crosses were calculated using unpaired t-tests. Significance was tested at α=0.05.

3. Results

In 2017 a total of 1320 channel x blue hybrid catfish were generated from 36 families in a 6×6 diallel cross. At 14-months post hatch, the mean weight of the hybrid progeny was 9.69 g±8.78 g. The GCAD estimate for body weight was 0.0021 and was responsible for 4.50% of total variance (FIG. 20). The GCAs estimate for body weight was 0.0040 and was responsible for 8.42% of total variance. The SGA estimate for body weight was 0.0098 and was responsible for 20.76% of total variance. The remaining 66.32% of variance was due to error. There were significant differences among mean body weights of families at 14-months post hatch (p<2e-16). At 14-months post hatch the heaviest family was 700% and 38.95 g larger than the lightest family (p<2e-16).

At 40-months the mean weight was 836.64 g±250.71. The GCA_(D) estimate for body weight was 0.0007 and was responsible for 1.09% of total variance (FIG. 21). The GCA_(S) estimate for body weight was 0. The SGA estimate for body weight was 0.0031 and was responsible for 4.61% of total variance. The remaining 94.30% of variance was due to error. There were no significant differences between mean body weights of different families at 40-months post hatch (p=0.243). At 14-months post hatch the observed mean of the heaviest family was 88% and 543.33 g larger than the lightest family, but was not significantly different (p=0.414). The heaviest and lightest families at 40-months post hatch were not the same as those at 14-months post hatch, indicating genotype-environment interactions.

Example 5—Optimization of Hormone Therapy and Induced Spawning of Mc4R Knockout Channel Catfish

Bodyweight of males and females and those with good secondary sexual characteristics indicative of readiness for spawning are paired in suitable aquaria (e.g., 120 L aquaria). Males are used multiple times as needed. Males and females are treated with the same injection regimes with 10 replicate pairings per treatment.

The injection regimes for determining optimized hormone threapy are as follows:

LHRHa [0 (saline), 50, 100 μg/kg] and hCG [0 (saline), 1,200, 1,600, 2,000 IU] using a 3×4 factorial design. Each female is administered two intraperitoneal injections with a priming dose (20% of hormone) and resolving dose (80% of hormone) 15 h later. Males receive a single injection. Spawning is checked every 4 h beginning 24 h. Spawns are collected, egg number calculated for each pair. Eggs (˜20) are also randomly sampled from each female to analyze egg diameter (mm).

qPCR is used to assess the expression of gonadotropin receptors (fshr, lhcgr1, lhcgr2) and estrogen receptors (esr1, esr2a, esr2b, gpera, gperb), and progesterone receptors (pgr, mPRa) and the androgen receptor (ar) in males. This is completed for 3 pairs per hormonal treatment, where samples (via ovarian biopsy) are collected before first injection (time 0), right before spawning, and in the unfertilized eggs.

Individual egg masses are incubated separately utilizing standard procedures in paddlewheel troughs. Then fine mesh containers are placed under the egg masses to catch hatching fry and prevent mixing of the families just prior to hatching. Fecundity, hatch and fry/kg female body weight is determined.

In some embodiments, at least a 40% hatch rate is indicative of a successful hormone treatment regime.

Various modifications and variations of the described methods, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications and that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention that are obvious to those skilled in the art are intended to be within the scope of the invention. This application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure come within known customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to the essential features herein before set forth. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An engineered fish comprising: a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to a suitable control.
 2. The engineered fish of claim 1, further comprising a modified myostatin gene or gene product, wherein the modified myostatin gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to the suitable control.
 3. The engineered fish of claim 1, wherein the engineered fish has increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of n-3 fatty acids, sterility, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.
 4. The engineered fish of claim 1, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each decreased 2-1000 fold.
 5. The engineered fish of claim 2, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product expression, activity, or both are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, wherein the myostatin gene or gene product expression, activity, or both, are each independently decreased 2-1000 fold, or both.
 6. The engineered fish of claim 2, further comprising one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a. a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; b. a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; c. or both (a) and (b).
 7. The engineered fish of claim 6, wherein the engineered fish has increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased disease resistance, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.
 8. The engineered fish of claim 2, wherein the engineered fish has increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased disease resistance, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.
 9. The engineered fish of claim 1, further comprising one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene.
 10. The engineered fish of claim 9, wherein the engineered fish has increased body weight, growth rate, increased body weight, increased body mass, increased growth rate, increased amount of docosahexaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, increased amount of eicosapentaenoic acid in one or more cells or tissues, or any combination thereof as compared to a suitable control.
 11. The engineered fish of claim 1, wherein the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof.
 12. The engineered fish of claim 9, wherein the engineered fish is I. punctatus, L furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof.
 13. The engineered fish of claim 1, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product is produced using a programmable nuclease system.
 14. The engineered fish of claim 11, wherein the programmable nuclease system is a CRISPR-Cas system, a TALEN system, a Zinc Finger Nuclease system, or an IscB system.
 15. A feed or food product comprising: an engineered fish or portion thereof, wherein the engineered fish comprises a modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product, wherein the modified melanocortin-4 receptor gene or gene product has decreased or eliminated expression, activity, or both as compared to an unmodified control.
 16. The feed or food product of claim 15, further comprising one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene.
 17. The feed or food product of claim 15, wherein the engineered fish further comprises a modified myostatin gene.
 18. The feed or food product of claim 17, further comprising one or more exogenous genes selected from an elongase gene, an n-3 fatty acid biosynthesis gene, a cercopin gene, a cathelicidin gene, a growth hormone gene, or a follistatin gene, optionally wherein a. a portion of or the entirety of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; b. a portion of or the entirety of the myostatin gene is replaced with an exogenous gene; c. or both (a) and (b).
 19. The feed or food product of claim 15, wherein the engineered fish is of the genus Ictalurus, Ameriurus, Pylodictus, or Noturu, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof.
 20. The feed or food product of claim 19, wherein the engineered fish is I. punctatus, L furcatu, A. catus, A. nebulosus, A. natalis, A. melas, P. olivaris, N. insignis, or N. flavus, or is a hybrid of any combination thereof. 